Tonda Bone

1
A Theoretical Framework for Investigating Human
Factors in GIS Use The Impact of Spatial
Ability, Computer Aptitude, and Cognition

• Tonda Bone
• University of North Texas
• Dena Johnson
• Tarleton State University
• ISECON 2007

2
Research Gap

• Current research focuses on
• Spatial abilities in context of map reading task,
  cognitive map construction, wayfinding
  experiments
• GIS as presentation device rather than as a
  problem-solving tool
• Current research does not address
• Cognitive style dimensions in context of GIS use
• Computer aptitude as factor in GIS use

3
Research Gap

• We need to understand how human factors influence
  GIS use
• For academic purposes
• GIS as a learning tool
• GIS design
• For industry
• GIS design
• GIS training

4
What is an Information System?

• An information system consists of
• at least one PERSON
• of a certain PSYCHOLOGICAL TYPE
• who faces a PROBLEM
• within some ORGANIZATIONAL CONTEXT
• for which he needs evidence to arrive at a
  solution
• and that the EVIDENCE is made available to him
• through some MODE OF PRESENTATION
• (Mason Mitroff, 1973, p. 475, emphasis in
  original, bullets added).

5
What is a Geographic Information System (GIS)?

• A spatially-referenced information system that
  provides tools for collecting, managing,
  integrating, analyzing, and displaying data that
  is spatially referenced (Goodchild, Egenhofer,
  Kemp, Mark, Sheppard, 1999 Turk, 1990)
• Includes representations of locations, as well as
  non-spatial data (attributes) that describe those
  locations
• A structure incorporating 5 elements (Turk,
  1990)
• Data
• Hardware
• Software
• Procedures
• People

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Spatial Cognition

• The knowledge and internal or cognitive
  representation of the structure, entities, and
  relations of space in other words, the
  internalized reflection and reconstruction of
  space in thought (Hart and Moore, 1973, p. 248)
• 3 distinct factors of spatial ability
• Spatial visualization
• Spatial manipulation
• Spatial relations

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Spatial Visualization

• Ability to mentally manipulate spatial objects
  and configurations without referring to ones
  self as a reference point (Albert Golledge,
  1999 Hegarty Waller, 2005 McGee, 1979)
• May be important to GIS in the function of moving
  map layers for analysis and for display, and for
  performing logical operations on spatial elements

8
Spatial Orientation

• Ability to imagine how a visual stimulus or
  configuration looks from a different perspective
  (Albert Golledge, 1993)
• May be important to GIS because operators have to
  change perspective when dealing with 3D
  representations before making inferences about
  the data (Albert Golledge, 1993)

9
Spatial Relations

• Involves analyzing patterns, shape, layout,
  hierarchy, and linkage between individual stimuli
  within a visual configuration (Albert Golledge,
  1993 Gilmartin Patton, 1984 Golledge,
  Dougherty, Bell, 1995 )
• May be important in GIS functions of identifying
  and categorizing features, recognizing spatial
  association

10
Map Reading Ability

• Data interaction occurs primarily through the map
  interface thus, map interaction also is an
  important component of GIS use (Lloyd Bunch,
  2003)
• How does information acquisition from maps,
  including internal representation, influence GIS
  use?

11
Human Spatial Information Processing

• Hierarchical organization and categorization
• Chunking
• Category theory
• Cognitive mapping
• Of physical space
• Of virtual (computer) space

12
Mental models and problem solving

• Mental modeling process mirrors GIS analysis
  processes (Turk, 1990)
• Involves inferencing, context, cognitive load,
  and past experiences (Allen, 1996 Ramaprasad,
  1987 Rauh, Knauff, Cuss, Schlieder, and Strube,
  2005 Tversky, 1993)
• Using GIS to model the problem space could aid
  mental modeling development

13
Cognitive Styles

• Example Need for cognition (NFC)
• Cohen, Stotland, and Wolfe (1955) NFC as a need
  to structure ones environment
• Crossland, Herschel, Perkins, and Scudder (2000)
  NFC as a measure of an individuals internal
  motivation to pursue and enjoy thinking
  activities (p. 17)

14
Computer Aptitude

• Refers to literacy aspects of computer and
  Internet technologies
• Computer use is a spatial task
• Affects performance on mental rotations tests (De
  Lisi Cammarano, 1996 Sacuzzo, Craig, Johnson,
  Larson, 1996 Terlecki Newcombe 2005)

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Summary Main Human Factors in GIS Interaction

• Spatial abilities
• e.g., visualization, orientation, relations
• Map reading abilities
• Problem solving style
• Mental models
• Need for cognition
• Cognitive Style
• Computer attitude and efficacy

16
Future Research

• Computer attitude and efficacy
• User interaction in context
• Mental models of GIS spatial representations
• Map sketching with GIS
• Psychometric studies

17
The End

• Questions and comments?

18
Works Cited

• Albert, W. S., Golledge, R. G. (1999). The use
  of spatial cognitive abilities in geographical
  information systems The map overlay operation.
  Transactions in GIS, 3(1), 7-21.
• Allen, B. L. (1996). Information tasks Toward a
  user-centered approach to information systems.
  San Diego Academic Press.

19
Works Cited (cont.)

• Cohen, A. R., Stotland, E., Wolfe, D. M.
  (1955). An experimental investigation of need for
  cognition. Journal of Abnormal and Social
  Psychology, 51, 291-294.
• Crossland, M. D., Herschel, R. T., Perkins, W.
  C., Scudder, J. N. (2000). The imact of task
  and cognitive style on decision-making
  effectiveness using a geographic information
  system. Journal of End User Computing, 21(1),
  14-23.

20
Works Cited (cont.)

• De Lisi, R., Cammarano, D. M. (1996). Computer
  experience and gender differences in
  undergraduate mental rotation performance.
  Computers in Human Behavior, 12(3), 351-361.
• Gilmartin, P. P., Patton, J. C. (1984).
  Comparing the sexes on spatial abilities Map use
  skills. Annals of the Association of American
  Geographers, 74(4), 605-619.

21
Works Cited (cont.)

• Golledge, R. G., Dougherty, V., Bell, S.
  (1995). Acquiring spatial knowledge Survey
  versus route-based knowledge in unfamiliar
  environments. Annals of the Association of
  American Geographers, 85(1), 134-158.
• Goodchild, M. F., Egenhofer, M. J., Kemp, K. K.,
  Mark, D. M., Sheppard, E. (1999). Introduction
  to the Varenius Project. International Journal of
  Geographical Information Science, 13(8), 731-745.

22
Works Cited (cont.)

• Hart, R. A., Moore, G. T. (1973). The
  development of spatial cognition A review. In R.
  M. Downs D. Stea (Eds.), Image and environment
  Cognitive mapping and spatial behavior (pp.
  246-295). Chicago Aldine Publishing Co.

23
Works Cited (cont.)

• Hegarty, M., Waller, D. (2005). Individual
  differences in spatial abilities. In P. Shah A.
  Miyake (Eds.), The Cambridge handbook of
  visuospatial thinking (pp. 120-169). New York
  Cambridge University Press.
• Lloyd, R. E., Bunch, R. L. (2003). Technology
  and map-learning Users, methods, and symbols.
  Annals of the Association of American
  Geographers, 93(4), 828-850.

24
Works Cited (cont.)

• Mark, D. M. (1993). Human spatial cognition. In
  D. Medyckyj-Scott H. M. Hearnshaw (Eds.), Human
  factors in geographic information systems.
  London Bellhaven.
• McGee, M. G. (1979). Human spatial abilities
  Psychometric studies and environmental, genetic,
  hormonal, and neurological influences.
  Psychological Bulletin, 86, 889-918.

25
Works Cited (cont.)

• Ramaprasad, A. (1987). Cognitive process as a
  basis for MIS and DSS design. Management Science,
  33(2), 139-148.
• Rauh, R., Hagen, C., Knauff, M., Kuss, T.,
  Schlieder, C., Strube, G. (2005). Preferred and
  alternative mental models in spatial reasoning.
  Spatial Cognition and Computation, 5(23),
  239-269.

26
Works Cited (cont.)

• Saccuzzo, D. P., Craig, A. S., Johnson, N. E.,
  Larson, G. E. (1996). Gender differences in
  dynamic spatial abilities. Personality and
  Individual Differences, 21(4), 599-607.
• Terlecki, M. S., Newcombe, N. S. (2005). How
  important is the digital divide? The relation of
  computer and videogame usage to gender
  differences in mental rotation ability. Sex
  Roles, 53(5/6), 433-441.

27
Works Cited (cont.)

• Turk, A. G. (1990). Towards an understanding of
  human-computer interaction aspects of geographic
  information systems. Cartography, 19(1), 31-60.
• Tversky, B. (1993). Cognitive maps, cognitive
  collages, and spatial mental models. In A. U.
  Frank I. Campari (Eds.), Proceedings of the
  International Conference on Spatial Information
  Theory A theoretical basis for GIS (pp. 14-24).
  Berlin Springer-Verlag.

28
Works Cited (cont.)

• Velez, M. C., Silver, D., Tremaine, M. (2005,
  October 23-28). Understanding visualization
  through spatial ability differences. Paper
  presented at the IEEE Visualization 2005,
  Minneapolis, MN.