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Behaviourism

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Title: Behaviourism


1
Behaviourism
2
Behaviourism
  • All things should be looked at from the
    perspective of behaviour.
  • Behaviourism argues that there is no mind, no
    thoughts, no feelings, and the only important
    thing to consider is behaviour.

3
Failure is no accident.
We teach people how to treat us.
Awareness without action is worthless.
The most you get is what you ask for.
4
Failure is no accident.
Awareness without action is worthless.
We teach people how to treat us.
The most you get is what you ask for.
5
Behaviourists (before Dr. Phil)
  • Ivan Pavlov
  • Edward Thorndike
  • John B. Watson
  • B.F. Skinner

6
Behaviourists (before Dr. Phil)
Classic Conditioning (stimulus-response)
  • Ivan Pavlov
  • Edward Thorndike
  • John B. Watson
  • B.F. Skinner

7
Behaviourists (before Dr. Phil)
Classic Conditioning (stimulus-response)
  • Ivan Pavlov
  • Edward Thorndike
  • John B. Watson
  • B.F. Skinner

Experimental approach only
8
Behaviourists (before Dr. Phil)
Classic Conditioning (stimulus-response)
  • Ivan Pavlov
  • Edward Thorndike
  • John B. Watson
  • B.F. Skinner

Experimental approach only
Operand Conditioning
9
Ivan Petrovich Pavlov
  • Born Sept 14, 1849
  • Died Feb 27, 1936
  • born in Ryazan, Russia
  • physiologist, psychologist, and physician
  • awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine
    in 1904 for research on the digestive system

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15
Edward Lee Thorndike
  • Born August 31, 1874
  • Died August 9, 1949
  • Born in Williamsburg, Massachusetts
  • Studied animal behaviour and the learning process
  • led to the theory of connectionism
  • Laying the foundation for modern educational
    psychology.

16
Cats in Puzzle Boxes
17
Cats in Puzzle Boxes
  • Thorndike looked at how cats learned to escape
    from puzzle boxes
  • The puzzle box experiments were motivated by
    Thorndike's dislike for statements that animals
    made use of extraordinary faculties such as
    insight in their problem solving.

18
Cats in Puzzle Boxes
  • Thorndike's instruments in answering this
    question were learning curves revealed by
    plotting the time it took for an animal to escape
    the box each time it was in the box
  • if the animals were showing insight, then their
    time to escape would suddenly drop to a
    negligible period, which would also be shown in
    the learning curve as an abrupt drop
  • while animals using a more ordinary method of
    trial and error would show gradual curves.

19
Cats in Puzzle Boxes
  • His finding was that cats consistently showed
    gradual learning.

20
Cats in Puzzle Boxes
  • So it was trial-and-error
  • These led Thorndike to formulate first his
    Principles of Learning and then his Theory of
    Learning that became the foundation of modern
    educational psychology.

21
Principles of Learning
  • Thorndike specified three conditions that
    maximizes learning
  • The Law of Effect states that the likely
    recurrence of a response is generally governed by
    its consequence or effect generally in the form
    of reward or punishment.
  • The Law of Recency states that the most recent
    response is likely to govern the recurrence.
  • The Law of Exercise stated that stimulus-response
    associations are strengthened through repetition.

22
Law of Effect
  • "Of several responses made to the same situation,
    those which are accompanied or closely followed
    by satisfaction to the animal will, other things
    being equal, be more firmly connected with the
    situation, so that, when it recurs, they will be
    more likely to recur those which are accompanied
    or closely followed by discomfort to the animal
    will, other things being equal, have their
    connections with that situation weakened, so
    that, when it recurs, they will be less likely to
    occur"
  • Thorndike, E. L. (1911). Animal intelligence
    Experimental Studies. p. 244

23
Theory of Learning
  • Thorndike created 13 basic rules
  • I want us to pause after each one and check if
    you think this is a universal principle.
  • Also see if there is some technology or teaching
    approach you can imagine that might help support
    this rule

24
Theory of Learning
  • 1. The most basic form of learning is trial and
    error learning.

25
Theory of Learning
  • 2. Learning is incremental not insightful.

26
Theory of Learning
  • 3. Learning is not mediated by ideas.

27
Theory of Learning
  • 4. All mammals learn in the same manner.

28
Theory of Learning
  • 5. Law of Readiness Interference with goal
    directed behaviour causes frustration and causing
    someone to do something they do not want to do is
    also frustrating.
  • a. When someone is ready to perform some act, to
    do so is satisfying.
  • b. When someone is ready to perform some act, not
    to do so is annoying.
  • c. When someone is not ready to perform some act
    and is forced to do so, it is annoying.

29
Theory of Learning
  • 6. Law of Exercise We learn by doing. We forget
    by not doing, although to a small extent only.
  • a. Connections between a stimulus and a response
    are strengthened as they are used. (law of use)
  • b. Connections between a stimulus and a response
    are weakened as they are not used. (law of disuse)

30
Theory of Learning
  • 7. Law of Effect If the response in a connection
    is followed by a satisfying state of affairs, the
    strength of the connection is considerably
    increased whereas if followed by an annoying
    state of affairs, then the strength of the
    connection is marginally decreased.

31
Theory of Learning
  • 8. Multiple Responses A learner would keep
    trying multiple responses to solve a problem
    before it is actually solved.

32
Theory of Learning
  • 9. Set or Attitude What the learner already
    possesses, like prior learning experiences,
    present state of the learner, etc., while it
    begins learning a new task.

33
Theory of Learning
  • 10. Prepotency of Elements Different responses
    to the same environment would be evoked by
    different perceptions of the environment which
    act as the stimulus to the responses. Different
    perceptions would be subject to the prepotency of
    different elements for different perceivers.

34
Theory of Learning
  • 11. Response from analogy New problems are
    solved by using solution techniques employed to
    solve analogous problems.

35
Theory of Learning
  • 12. Associative Shifting Let stimulus S be
    paired with response R. Now, if stimulus Q is
    presented simultaneously with stimulus S
    repeatedly, then stimulus Q is likely to get
    paired with response R.

36
Theory of Learning
  • 13. Belongingness If there is a natural
    relationship between the need state of an
    organism and the effect caused by a response,
    learning is more effective than if the
    relationship is unnatural.

37
John Broadus Watson
  • Born Jan 9, 1878
  • Died Sept 25, 1958
  • Born in Greenville, South Carolina
  • American psychologist
  • established the psychological school of
    behaviourism
  • Little Albert experiment

38
The Behaviorist Manifesto
  • In 1913, Watson published the article "Psychology
    as the Behaviorist Views It" sometimes called
    "The Behaviorist Manifesto". In this article,
    Watson outlined the major features of his new
    philosophy of psychology, called "behaviorism".

39
The Behaviorist Manifesto
  • The first paragraph of the article concisely
    described Watson's behaviorist position
  • Psychology as the behaviorist views it is a
    purely objective experimental branch of natural
    science. Its theoretical goal is the prediction
    and control of behavior. Introspection forms no
    essential part of its methods, nor is the
    scientific value of its data dependent upon the
    readiness with which they lend themselves to
    interpretation in terms of consciousness. The
    behaviorist, in his efforts to get a unitary
    scheme of animal response, recognizes no dividing
    line between man and brute. The behavior of man,
    with all of its refinement and complexity, forms
    only a part of the behaviorist's total scheme of
    investigation.

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41
"Little Albert" experiment
  • Occurred in 1920
  • One of the most controversial experiments in the
    history of psychology
  • It was an experiment showing empirical evidence
    of classical conditioning in humans

Rosalie Rayner Albert B. John B. Watson
42
"Little Albert" experiment
  • Watson and Rayner selected an infant named
    Albert, at approximately 9 months of age, he was
    tested and was judged to show no fear when
    successively observing a number of live animals
    (e.g., a rat, a rabbit, a dog, and a monkey), and
    various inanimate objects (e.g., cotton, human
    masks, a burning newspaper).

43
"Little Albert" experiment
  • He was, however, judged to show fear whenever a
    long steel bar was unexpectedly struck with a
    claw hammer just behind his back.

44
"Little Albert" experiment
  • Two months after testing Albert's apparently
    unconditioned reactions to various stimuli,
    Watson and Rayner attempted to condition him to
    fear a white rat. This was done by presenting a
    white rat to Albert, followed by a loud clanging
    sound (of the hammer and steel bar) whenever
    Albert touched the animal. After seven pairings
    of the rat and noise (in two sessions, one week
    apart), Albert reacted with crying and avoidance
    when the rat was presented without the loud
    noise.

45
However
  • Ben Harris in Whatever Happened to Little
    Albert? 1979 says that critical reading of
    Watson and Rayner's (1920) report reveals little
    evidence that Albert developed a rat phobia

46
Little Albert Video
  • http//www.youtube.com/watch?vpVt0k9IPQ-A

47
Burrhus Frederic Skinner
  • Born March 20, 1904
  • Died August 18, 1990
  • Born in Susquehanna, Pennsylvania
  • American psychologist, author, inventor, advocate
    for social reform and poet.
  • Innovated his own philosophy of science called
    Radical Behaviorism

48
Radical Behaviorism
  • Skinner views (Radical behaviourism) differed
    from other behaviourists (Methodological
    behaviourism) in that he felt that thoughts and
    feelings could be taken into account when
    considering that psychology of the individual

49
Radical Behaviorism
  • Radical behaviourism seeks to understand
    behaviour as a function of environmental
    histories of reinforcing consequences.
  • Reinforcement processes were emphasized by
    Skinner, and were seen as primary in the shaping
    of behaviour.
  • A common misconception is that negative
    reinforcement is some form of punishment.

50
Radical Behaviorism
  • Positive reinforcement is the strengthening of
    behaviour by the application of some event (e.g.,
    praise after some behaviour is performed),
  • Negative reinforcement is the strengthening of
    behaviour by the removal or avoidance of some
    aversive event (e.g., opening and raising an
    umbrella over your head on a rainy day is
    reinforced by the cessation of rain falling on
    you).
  • Both types of reinforcement strengthen behaviour,
    or increase the probability of a behaviour
    reoccurring.

51
Radical Behaviorism
  • Punishment and extinction have the effect of
    weakening behaviour, or decreasing the
    probability of a behaviour reoccurring, by the
    application of an aversive event (punishment) or
    the removal of a rewarding event (extinction).

52
Inventor
  • Cumulative Recorder
  • Operant Conditioning Chamber (Skinner Box)
  • Teaching Machine
  • Air Crib

53
Cumulative Recorder
54
Cumulative Recorder
  • an instrument used to automatically record
    behaviour graphically
  • The needle would start at the bottom of the page
    and the drum would turn the roll of paper
    horizontally. Each response would result in the
    marking needle moving vertically along the paper
    one tick.

55
Operant Conditioning Chamber
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Operant Conditioning Chamber (Skinner Box)
  • A box large enough to easily accommodate the
    animal being used as a subject (including lab
    rats, pigeons, and primates).
  • It contains one or more levers which an animal
    can press, one or more stimulus lights and one or
    more places in which reinforcers like food can be
    delivered.
  • It is often sound-proof and light-proof to avoid
    distracting stimuli.

58
Operant Conditioning Chamber (Skinner Box)
  • In one of Skinners experiments a hungry rat was
    introduced into the box. When the lever was
    pressed by the rat a small pellet of food was
    dropped onto a tray. The rat soon learned that
    when he pressed the lever he would receive some
    food. In this experiment the lever pressing
    behaviour is reinforced by food.

59
Operant Conditioning Chamber (Skinner Box)
60
Operant Conditioning Chamber (Skinner Box)
  • If pressing the lever is reinforced (the rat gets
    food) when a light is on but not when it is off,
    responses (pressing the lever) continue to be
    made in the light but seldom, if at all, in the
    dark. The rat has formed discrimination between
    light and dark. When one turns on the light, a
    response occurs, but that is not a Pavlovian
    conditioned reflex response.

61
Operant Conditioning Chamber (Skinner Box)
  • In this experiment Skinner demonstrated the ideas
    of "operant conditioning" and "shaping
    behaviour." Unlike Pavlov's "classical
    conditioning," where an existing behaviour
    (salivating for food) is shaped by associating it
    with a new stimulus (ringing of a bell or a
    metronome), operant conditioning is the rewarding
    of an act that approaches a new desired behavior.

62
Operant Conditioning Chamber (Skinner Box)
  • Skinner's operant chamber allowed him to explore
    the rate of response as a dependent variable, as
    well as develop his theory of schedules of
    reinforcement. The first operant chambers were
    attached to cumulative records on drums producing
    characteristic pauses, scallops, and other lines.

63
How pigeons get to be superstitious
64
Operant Conditioning Chamber (Skinner Box)
  • Skinner also used pigeons in his experiments

65
Operant Conditioning Chamber (Skinner Box)
  • In one experiment he decided to drop food into
    the box at completely random times, independent
    of any behaviour on the part of the pigeons.
  • Amazingly the pigeons behaviour soon started to
    display a consistent type of behaviour. Each
    pigeon did different things.

66
Operant Conditioning Chamber (Skinner Box)
  • One circled counter-clockwise, another spun
    around in circles seventy-five percent of them
    exhibited some kind of odd behaviour.
  • Skinner concluded that the pigeons had
    incorrectly associated their behaviour at the
    times of the food drops to the food appearing,
    and had become 'superstitious'.

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Teaching Machine
69
Teaching Machine
  • In 1954 B.F. Skinner embarked upon a series of
    studies designed to improve teaching methods for
    spelling, math, and other school subjects by
    using a mechanical device that would surpass the
    usual classroom experience.
  • He believed the classroom had disadvantages
    because the rate of learning for different
    students was variable and reinforcement was also
    delayed due to the lack of individual attention.
  • Since personal tutors for every student was
    usually unavailable, Skinner developed a theory
    of programmed learning that was to be implemented
    by teaching machines.

70
Teaching Machine
  • The teaching machine is composed of mainly a
    program, which is a system of combined teaching
    and test items that carries the student gradually
    through the material to be learned.
  • The "machine" is composed by a fill-in-the-blank
    method on either a workbook or in a computer. If
    the subject is correct, he/she gets reinforcement
    and moves on to the next question. If the answer
    is incorrect, the subject studies the correct
    answer to increase the chance of getting
    reinforced next time.

71
Teaching Machine
  • The teaching machine is merely a device for
    presenting the set of frames of which the program
    is composed.
  • However, it is not supplementary but
    all-inclusive. The program will do all the
    teaching through a response/reward mechanism.
  • Skinner also noted that the learning process
    should be divided into a large number of very
    small steps and reinforcement must be dependent
    upon the completion of each step.
  • Skinner suggested that the machine itself should
    not teach, but bring the student into contact
    with the person who composed the material it
    presented. He believed this was the best possible
    arrangement for learning because it took into
    account the rate of learning for each individual
    student.

72
Skinner on Education
Skinner says that there are five main obstacles
to learning
  • Give the learner immediate feedback.
  • Break down the task into small steps.
  • Repeat the directions as many times as possible.
  • Work from the most simple to the most complex
    tasks.
  • Give positive reinforcement.
  • People have a fear of failure.
  • The task is not broken down into small enough
    steps.
  • There is a lack of directions.
  • There is also a lack of clarity in the
    directions.
  • Positive reinforcement is lacking.

73
Skinner on Education
  • Give the learner immediate feedback.
  • Break down the task into small steps.
  • Repeat the directions as many times as possible.
  • Work from the most simple to the most complex
    tasks.
  • Give positive reinforcement.
  • People have a fear of failure.
  • The task is not broken down into small enough
    steps.
  • There is a lack of directions.
  • There is also a lack of clarity in the
    directions.
  • Positive reinforcement is lacking.

74
Air Crib
75
Air Crib
  • To help his wife cope with the day-to-day tasks
    of child rearing, Skinner improved upon the
    standard crib with the 'air-crib' to meet this
    challenge.
  • An 'air-crib' (also known as a 'baby tender' or
    humorously as an 'heir conditioner') is an easily
    cleaned, temperature and humidity-controlled box
    Skinner designed to assist in the raising of
    babies.

76
Did you know?
  • Opening Skinner's Box Great Psychological
    Experiments of the Twentieth Century by Lauren
    Slater (2004)
  • In this book Slater reveals that B.F. Skinner
    raised his daughter Deborah in an operant
    conditioning chamber and subjected her to
    psychological experiments

77
Did you know?
  • Opening Skinner's Box Great Psychological
    Experiments of the Twentieth Century by Lauren
    Slater (2004)
  • . . . caged for two full years, placing within
    her cramped square space bells and food trays and
    all manners of mean punishments and bright
    rewards, and he tracked her progress on a grid.
    And then, when she was thirty-one and frankly
    psychotic, she sued him for abuse in a genuine
    court of law, lost the case, and shot herself in
    a bowling alley in Billings, Montana. Boom-boom
    went the gun.

78
  • Wow

79
  • But

80
  • It is totally untrue

81
  • Deborah Skinner is alive and well, living in the
    UK. She was understandably upset about these
    stories (something of an urban legend) and wrote
    an article in The Guardian

82
The Guardian, Friday 12 March 2004
  • I was not a lab rat
  • By Deborah Skinner Buzan

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84
Skinners Critics
  • We will look at a few of Skinners most famous
    critics
  • Harry Harlow
  • Anthony Burgess
  • Noam Chomsky

85
Harry HarlowsWire andTerryclothmothers
86
Harry Harlow
  • Born October 31, 1905
  • Died December 6, 1981
  • Born in Fairfield, Iowa
  • American psychologist best known for his
    maternal-separation and social isolation
    experiments on rhesus monkeys, which demonstrated
    the importance of care-giving and companionship
    in social and cognitive development.

87
  • In a well-known series of experiments conducted
    between 1957 and 1963, Harlow removed baby rhesus
    monkeys from their mothers, and offered them a
    choice between two surrogate mothers, one made of
    terrycloth, the other of wire.

88
  • Two groups of baby rhesus monkeys were removed
    from their mothers. In the first group, a
    terrycloth mother provided no food, while a wire
    mother did, in the form of an attached baby
    bottle containing milk.
  • In the second group, a terrycloth mother provided
    food the wire mother did not.
  • It was found that the young monkeys clung to the
    terrycloth mother whether or not it provided them
    with food, and that the young monkeys chose the
    wire surrogate only when it provided food.

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  • Whenever a frightening stimulus was brought into
    the cage, the monkeys ran to the cloth mother for
    protection and comfort, no matter which mother
    provided them with food. This response decreased
    as the monkeys grew older.

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92
  • Harlow's interpretation of this behaviour, which
    is still widely accepted, was that a lack of
    contact comfort is psychologically stressful to
    the monkeys.
  • The importance of these findings is that they
    contradicted both the then common pedagogic
    advice of limiting or avoiding bodily contact in
    an attempt to avoid spoiling children and the
    insistence of the then dominant Behaviourist
    School of Psychology that emotions were
    negligible.

93
  • Feeding was thought to be the most important
    factor in the formation of a mother-child bond.
  • Harlow concluded, however, that nursing
    strengthened the mother-child bond because of the
    intimate body contact that it provided.

94
Anthony Burgess
  • John Burgess Wilson
  • Born 25 February 1917
  • Died 22 November 1993
  • Born in Manchester, England
  • An English author, poet, playwright, composer,
    linguist, translator and critic.
  • The dystopian satire A Clockwork Orange is
    Burgess' most famous novel, though he dismissed
    it as one of his lesser works.

95
Anthony Burgess
  • In his novel, A Clockwork Orange, Anthony Burgess
    criticizes Skinner's theories as being immoral,
    claiming that moral choice is a necessary part of
    one's humanity.

96
Anthony Burgess
  • The novel's protagonist, Alex, believes he can be
    released from prison early by participating in an
    Ivan Pavlov/B.F. Skinner inspired rehabilitation
    program referred to as the "Ludovico technique,"
    which conditions criminals to become nauseous
    from the mere thought of violence.

97
Anthony Burgess
  • Before participating in the program the prison
    chaplain warns against it, declaring that an
    action is only good if derived from good
    intentions. Thus conditioning in any form is
    criticized for being dehumanizing and oppressive.

98
Noam Chomsky
  • Born December 7, 1928
  • Born in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
  • An American linguist, philosopher, cognitive
    scientist, and political activist.
  • One of the fathers of modern linguistics, and a
    major figure of analytic philosophy.

99
Noam Chomsky
  • In 1959, Chomsky published a widely influential
    review of Skinner's book Verbal Behavior, Chomsky
    broadly and aggressively challenged the
    behaviourist approaches to studies of behaviour
    dominant at the time, and contributed to the
    cognitive revolution in psychology.
  • In the review Chomsky emphasized that the
    scientific application of behavioural principles
    from animal research is severely lacking in
    explanatory adequacy and is furthermore
    particularly superficial as an account of human
    verbal behaviour because a theory restricting
    itself to external conditions, to "what is
    learned", cannot adequately account for
    generative grammar.

100
Noam Chomsky
  • Chomsky raised the examples of rapid language
    acquisition of children, including their quickly
    developing ability to form grammatical sentences,
    and the universally creative language use of
    competent native speakers to highlight the ways
    in which Skinner's view exemplified
    under-determination of theory by evidence.
  • He argued that to understand human verbal
    behaviour such as the creative aspects of
    language use and language development, one must
    first postulate a genetic linguistic endowment.
    The assumption that important aspects of language
    are the product of universal innate ability runs
    counter to Skinner's radical behaviourism.

101
Noam Chomsky
  • Skinner, who rarely responded directly to
    critics, never formally replied to Chomsky's
    critique. A student of Skinner, Kenneth
    MacCorquodale, wrote a reply in 1970 that was
    endorsed by Skinner.
  • He claimed that Chomsky did not possess an
    adequate understanding of either behavioural
    psychology in general, or the differences between
    Skinner's behaviourism and other varieties
    consequently, it is argued that he made several
    serious errors.
  • Chomsky has maintained that the review was
    directed at the way Skinner's variant of
    behavioral psychology "was being used in Quinean
    empiricism and naturalization of philosophy"

102
  • Thats it, thanks.
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