Lecture 17: Lexical Relations

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Lecture 17 Lexical Relations WordNet
SIMS 202 Information Organization and Retrieval

• Prof. Ray Larson Prof. Marc Davis
• UC Berkeley SIMS
• Tuesday and Thursday 1030 am - 1200 pm
• Fall 2004
• http//www.sims.berkeley.edu/academics/courses/is2
  02/f04/

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Lecture Overview

• Review
• Lexical Relations
• WordNet
• Demo
• Discussion Questions
• Action Items for Next Time

Credit for some of the slides in this lecture
goes to Marti Hearst and Warren Sack
3
Lecture Overview

• Review
• Lexical Relations
• WordNet
• Demo
• Discussion Questions
• Action Items for Next Time

Credit for some of the slides in this lecture
goes to Marti Hearst and Warren Sack
4
Definition of AI

• ... artificial intelligence AI is the science
  of making machines do things that would require
  intelligence if done by humans (Minsky, 1963)

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The Goals of AI Are Not New

• Ancient Greece
• Daedalus automata
• Judaisms myth of the Golem
• 18th century automata
• Singing, dancing, playing chess?
• Mechanical metaphors for mind
• Clock
• Telegraph/telephone network
• Computer

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Some Areas of AI

• Knowledge representation
• Programming languages
• Natural language understanding
• Speech understanding
• Vision
• Robotics
• Planning
• Machine learning
• Expert systems
• Qualitative simulation

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AI or IA?

• Artificial Intelligence (AI)
• Make machines as smart as (or smarter than)
  people
• Intelligence Amplification (IA)
• Use machines to make people smarter

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Furnas The Vocabulary Problem

• People use different words to describe the same
  things
• If one person assigns the name of an item, other
  untutored people will fail to access it on 80 to
  90 percent of their attempts.
• Simply stated, the data tell us there is no one
  good access term for most objects.

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The Vocabulary Problem

• How is it that we come to understand each other?
• Shared context
• Dialogue
• How can machines come to understand what we say?
• Shared context?
• Dialogue?

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Vocabulary Problem Solutions?

• Furnas et al.
• Make the user memorize precise system meanings
• Have the user and system interact to identify the
  precise referent
• Provide infinite aliases to objects
• Minsky and Lenat
• Give the system commonsense so it can
  understand what the users words can mean

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CYC

• Decades long effort to build a commonsense
  knowledge-base
• Storied past
• 100,000 basic concepts
• 1,000,000 assertions about the world
• The validity of Cycs assertions are
  context-dependent (default reasoning)

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Cyc Examples

• Cyc can find the match between a user's query for
  "pictures of strong, adventurous people" and an
  image whose caption reads simply "a man climbing
  a cliff"
• Cyc can notice if an annual salary and an hourly
  salary are inadvertently being added together in
  a spreadsheet
• Cyc can combine information from multiple
  databases to guess which physicians in practice
  together had been classmates in medical school
• When someone searches for "Bolivia" on the Web,
  Cyc knows not to offer a follow-up question like
  "Where can I get free Bolivia online?"

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Cyc Applications

• Applications currently available or in
  development
• Integration of Heterogeneous Databases
• Knowledge-Enhanced Retrieval of Captioned
  Information
• Guided Integration of Structured Terminology
  (GIST)
• Distributed AI
• WWW Information Retrieval
• Potential applications
• Online brokering of goods and services
• "Smart" interfaces
• Intelligent character simulation for games
• Enhanced virtual reality
• Improved machine translation
• Improved speech recognition
• Sophisticated user modeling
• Semantic data mining

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Cycs Top-Level Ontology

• Fundamentals
• Top Level
• Time and Dates
• Types of Predicates
• Spatial Relations
• Quantities
• Mathematics
• Contexts
• Groups
• "Doing"
• Transformations
• Changes Of State
• Transfer Of Possession
• Movement
• Parts of Objects

• Composition of Substances
• Agents
• Organizations
• Actors
• Roles
• Professions
• Emotion
• Propositional Attitudes
• Social
• Biology
• Chemistry
• Physiology
• General Medicine

• Materials
• Waves
• Devices
• Construction
• Financial
• Food
• Clothing
• Weather
• Geography
• Transportation
• Information
• Perception
• Agreements
• Linguistic Terms
• Documentation

http//www.cyc.com/cyc-2-1/toc.html
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Lecture Overview

• Review
• Lexical Relations
• WordNet
• Demo
• Discussion Questions
• Action Items for Next Time

Credit for some of the slides in this lecture
goes to Marti Hearst and Warren Sack
16
Syntax

• The syntax of a language is to be understood as a
  set of rules which accounts for the distribution
  of word forms throughout the sentences of a
  language
• These rules codify permissible combinations of
  classes of word forms

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Semantics

• Semantics is the study of linguistic meaning
• Two standard approaches to lexical semantics
  (cf., sentential semantics and, logical
  semantics)
• (1) compositional
• (2) relational

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Lexical Semantics Compositional Approach

• Compositional lexical semantics, introduced by
  Katz Fodor (1963), analyzes the meaning of a
  word in much the same way a sentence is analyzed
  into semantic components. The semantic components
  of a word are not themselves considered to be
  words, but are abstract elements (semantic atoms)
  postulated in order to describe word meanings
  (semantic molecules) and to explain the semantic
  relations between words. For example, the
  representation of bachelor might be ANIMATE and
  HUMAN and MALE and ADULT and NEVER MARRIED. The
  representation of man might be ANIMATE and HUMAN
  and MALE and ADULT because all the semantic
  components of man are included in the semantic
  components of bachelor, it can be inferred that
  bachelor ? man. In addition, there are
  implicational rules between semantic components,
  e.g. HUMAN ? ANIMATE, which also look very much
  like meaning postulates.
• George Miller, On Knowing a Word, 1999

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Lexical Semantics Relational Approach

• Relational lexical semantics was first introduced
  by Carnap (1956) in the form of meaning
  postulates, where each postulate stated a
  semantic relation between words. A meaning
  postulate might look something like dog ? animal
  (if x is a dog then x is an animal) or, adding
  logical constants, bachelor ? man and never
  married if x is a bachelor then x is a man and
  not(x has married) or tall ? not short if x is
  tall then not(x is short). The meaning of a
  word was given, roughly, by the set of all
  meaning postulates in which it occurs.
• George Miller, On Knowing a Word, 1999

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Pragmatics

• Deals with the relation between signs or
  linguistic expressions and their users
• Deixis (literally pointing out)
• E.g., Ill be back in an hour depends upon the
  time of the utterance
• Conversational implicature
• A Can you tell me the time?
• B Well, the milkman has come. I dont know
  exactly, but perhaps you can deduce it from some
  extra information I give you.
• Presupposition
• Are you still such a bad driver?
• Speech acts
• Constatives vs. performatives
• E.g., I second the motion.
• Conversational structure
• E.g., turn-taking rules

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Language

• Language only hints at meaning
• Most meaning of text lies within our minds and
  common understanding
• How much is that doggy in the window?
• How much social system of barter and trade (not
  the size of the dog)
• doggy implies childlike, plaintive, probably
  cannot do the purchasing on their own
• in the window implies behind a store window,
  not really inside a window, requires notion of
  window shopping

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Semantics The Meaning of Symbols

• Semantics versus Syntax
• add(3,4)
• 3 4
• (different syntax, same meaning)
• Meaning versus Representation
• What a persons name is versus who they are
• A rose by any other name...
• What the computer program looks like versus
  what it actually does

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Semantics

• Semantics assigning meanings to symbols and
  expressions
• Usually involves defining
• Objects
• Properties of objects
• Relations between objects
• More detailed versions include
• Events
• Time
• Places
• Measurements (quantities)

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The Role of Context

• The concept associated with the symbol 21 means
  different things in different contexts
• Examples?
• The question Is there any salt?
• Asked of a waiter at a restaurant
• Asked of an environmental scientist at work

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Whats in a Sentence?

• A sentence is not a verbal snapshot or movie
  of an event. In framing an utterance, you have to
  abstract away from everything you know, or can
  picture, about a situation, and present a
  schematic version which conveys the essentials.
  In terms of grammatical marking, there is not
  enough time in the speech situation for any
  language to allow for the marking of everything
  which could possibly be significant to the
  message.
• Dan Slobin, in Language Acquisition The state of
  the art, 1982

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Lexical Relations

• Conceptual relations link concepts
• Goal of Artificial Intelligence
• Lexical relations link words
• Goal of Linguistics

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Major Lexical Relations

• Synonymy
• Polysemy
• Metonymy
• Hyponymy/Hypernymy
• Meronymy/Holonymy
• Antonymy

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Synonymy

• Different ways of expressing related concepts
• Examples
• cat, feline, Siamese cat
• Overlaps with basic and subordinate levels
• Synonyms are almost never truly substitutable
• Used in different contexts
• Have different implications
• This is a point of contention

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Polysemy

• Most words have more than one sense
• Homonym same sound and/or spelling, different
  meaning (http//www.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homonym)
• bank (river)
• bank (financial)
• Polysemy different senses of same word
  (http//www.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polysemy)
• That dog has floppy ears.
• She has a good ear for jazz.
• bank (financial) has several related senses
• the building, the institution, the notion of
  where money is stored

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Metonymy

• Use one aspect of something to stand for the
  whole
• The building stands for the institution of the
  bank.
• Newscast The White House released new figures
  today.
• Waitperson The ham sandwich spilled his drink.

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Hyponymy/Hyperonymy

• ISA relation
• Related to Superordinate and Subordinate level
  categories
• hyponym(robin,bird)
• hyponym(emu,bird)
• hyponym(bird,animal)
• hyperym(animal,bird)
• A is a hypernym of B if B is a type of A
• A is a hyponym of B if A is a type of B

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Basic-Level Categories (Review)

• Brown 1958, 1965, Berlin et al., 1972, 1973
• Folk biology
• Unique beginner plant, animal
• Life form tree, bush, flower
• Generic name pine, oak, maple, elm
• Specific name Ponderosa pine, white pine
• Varietal name Western Ponderosa pine
• No overlap between levels
• Level 3 is basic
• Corresponds to genus
• Folk biological categories correspond accurately
  to scientific biological categories only at the
  basic level

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Psychologically Primary Levels

• SUPERORDINATE animal furniture
• BASIC LEVEL dog chair
• SUBORDINATE terrier rocker
• Children take longer to learn superordinate
• Superordinate not associated with mental images
  or motor actions

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Meronymy/Holonymy

• Part/Whole relation
• meronym(beak,bird)
• meronym(bark,tree)
• holonym(tree,bark)
• Transitive conceptually but not lexically
• The knob is a part of the door.
• The door is a part of the house.
• ? The knob is a part of the house ?
• Holonyms are (approximately) the inverse of
  meronyms

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Antonymy

• Lexical opposites
• antonym(large, small)
• antonym(big, small)
• antonym(big, little)
• but not large, little
• Many antonymous relations can be reliably
  detected by looking for statistical correlations
  in large text collections. (Justeson Katz 91)

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Thesauri and Lexical Relations

• Polysemy same word, different senses of meaning
• Slightly different concepts expressed similarly
• Synonyms different words, related senses of
  meanings
• Different ways to express similar concepts
• Thesauri help draw all these together
• Thesauri also commonly define a set of relations
  between terms that is similar to lexical
  relations
• BT, NT, RT
• More on Thesauri next week

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What is an Ontology?

• From Merriam-Websters Collegiate
• A branch of metaphysics concerned with the nature
  and relations of being
• A particular theory about the nature of being or
  the kinds of existence
• More prosaically
• A carving up of the worlds meanings
• Determine what things exist, but not how they
  inter-relate
• Related terms
• Taxonomy, dictionary, category structure
• Commonly used now in CS literature to describe
  structures that function as Thesauri

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Lecture Overview

• Review
• Lexical Relations
• WordNet
• Demo
• Discussion Questions
• Action Items for Next Time

Credit for some of the slides in this lecture
goes to Marti Hearst and Warren Sack
39
WordNet

• Started in 1985 by George Miller, students, and
  colleagues at the Cognitive Science Laboratory,
  Princeton University
• Miller also known as the author of the paper The
  Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two Some
  Limits on our Capacity for Processing
  Information (1956)
• Can be downloaded for free
• www.cogsci.princeton.edu/wn/

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Miller on WordNet

• In terms of coverage, WordNets goals differ
  little from those of a good standard
  college-level dictionary, and the semantics of
  WordNet is based on the notion of word sense that
  lexicographers have traditionally used in writing
  dictionaries. It is in the organization of that
  information that WordNet aspires to innovation.
• (Miller, 1998, Chapter 1)

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Presuppositions of WordNet Project

• Separability hypothesis
• The lexical component of language can be
  separated and studied in its own right
• Patterning hypothesis
• People have knowledge of the systematic patterns
  and relations between word meanings
• Comprehensiveness hypothesis
• Computational linguistics programs need a store
  of lexical knowledge that is as extensive as that
  which people have

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WordNet Size
WordNet Uses Synsets sets of synonymous terms

• POS Unique Synsets
• Strings
• Noun 114648 79689
• Verb 11306 13508
• Adjective 21436 18563
• Adverb 4669 3664
• Totals 152059 115424

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Structure of WordNet
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Structure of WordNet
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Structure of WordNet
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Unique Beginners

• Entity, something
• (anything having existence (living or nonliving))
  
• Psychological_feature
• (a feature of the mental life of a living
  organism)
• Abstraction
• (a general concept formed by extracting common
  features from specific examples)
• State
• (the way something is with respect to its main
  attributes "the current state of knowledge"
  "his state of health" "in a weak financial
  state")
• Event
• (something that happens at a given place and
  time)

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Unique Beginners

• Act, human_action, human_activity
• (something that people do or cause to happen)
• Group, grouping
• (any number of entities (members) considered as a
  unit)
• Possession
• (anything owned or possessed)
• Phenomenon
• (any state or process known through the senses
  rather than by intuition or reasoning)

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Lecture Overview

• Review
• Lexical Relations
• WordNet
• Demo
• Discussion Questions
• Action Items for Next Time

Credit for some of the slides in this lecture
goes to Marti Hearst and Warren Sack
49
WordNet Demo

• Available online (from Unix) if you wish to try
  it
• Login to irony and type wn word for any word
  you are interested in
• Demo

50
Lecture Overview

• Review
• Lexical Relations
• WordNet
• Demo
• Discussion Questions
• Action Items for Next Time

Credit for some of the slides in this lecture
goes to Marti Hearst and Warren Sack
51
Discussion Questions
52
Discussion Questions
53
Discussion Questions
54
Lecture Overview

• Review
• Lexical Relations
• WordNet
• Demo
• Discussion Questions
• Next Time

Credit for some of the slides in this lecture
goes to Marti Hearst and Warren Sack
55
Homework

• Read
• Defining Information Architecture (Rosenfeld)
• Discussion Question volunteers?

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Next Time

• Introduction to the phone project