Intelligence

1
Intelligence

• What is intelligence?
• How would you test intelligence cross-culturally?

2
Definitions of Intelligence

• Most definitions include the word knowledge
• Most also include problem solving
• Also helps in the adaptation to changing
  environments
•  
• There are several Western approaches to
  intelligence
• Spearman, 1927-g
• Thurstone, 19383 intellectual skillsverbal,
  mathematical, spatial
• Sternberg, 19853 aspectsanalytic, creative,
  practical
• Gardner, 1983logical, linguistic, spatial,
  musical, bodily kinesthetic, personal
  intelligence and interpersonal intelligence

3
Major Debates in Intelligence

• What do IQ tests actually measure?
• How can it be show that the score was not
  influenced by other factors?
• 1921Natl Academy of Sciencesmassive study of
  intelligence nationally
• African Americans scored lower than whites
  generally
• Rated intellectual order of immigrants
• England-Holland-Denmark-Scotland-Germany-Canada-Be
  lgium-Norway-Austria-Ireland-Turkey-Greece-Russia-
  Italy- Poland

4
More recent data

• Today in US
• Asian American-White-Hispanics-African American.
  
• On average, African American scores 10-15 lower
  than white kids
• By religion, Jews score the highest
• Native Americansbelow average verbally, but high
  visual-spatial skills in some groups

5
Cross-Cultural Work

• Using Western measures, average IQ in sub-Saharan
  Africa is about 82 (Wicherts et al, 2010)
• Lynn and Vanhanen (2006) examined IQ across
  cultures
• Controversial study, argue for biological/genetic
  causes
• Dark red lt65, purple gt105

6
Why?

• Intelligence vs. intelligent behavior
• Biological factors and intelligence
• Nativist viewall cognitive phenomena are inborn
  and unravel as a result of bio programming
• Snyderman and Rothman, 1988asked 1000 scholars
  about the ethnic differences
• 1 always due to genetic factors
• 45 both genes and the environ
• 14 entirely environ
• Heredity and bio are a good part of individual
  differences
• Arthur Jensenbig proponent of innate diff in IQ
  between groups says that 80 of IQ is inherited
• Environment and intelligencefactors related to
  IQ
• Overall availability and access to resources
• Family climate
• Educational opportunities
• Access to books and travel
• General attitudes
• Cultural practices
• Presence or absence of cultural magical beliefs

7
Other Factors

• Attitudes toward testing
• Acquisition of skills depends on the environment
• Brazilian and Columbian street kids
• SES
• Family factors
• Birth order
• Flynn Effect

8
Still More Factors

• Years in schoolabout 2/3 of the variance in IQ
  scores
• Poverty can change the developing brain (Teicher
  et al, 2002)
• Witnessing domestic violence can reduce IQ
  (Delaney-Black et al, 2002)
• Cross-national IQ scores are related to low birth
  weight and proportion of agricultural workers
  (Barber, 2005)
• Exposure to parasites (Eppig et al, 2010)both
  developing the brain and fighting parasites take
  a lot of energy

9
Cultural Differences in the Meaning of
Intelligence

• Many languages have no word that means
  intelligence
• Mandarina character that means good brain and
  talented and is associated with effort, social
  responsibility
• Baganda of East Africaobugezimental and social
  skills that make a person steady, cautious,
  friendly
• Djerma-Songhi of West Africaakkalintelligent,
  know-how, social skills
• Baoulenglouelementally alert but willing to
  volunteer without being asked

10
Language and Communication

• Lexiconvocabulary of a language
• Syntax and grammarrules that govern word forms
  and how words are strung together to form
  meanings
• Phonologysystems of rules that govern how words
  should sound
• Semanticswhat words mean
• Pragmaticsrules that govern how language is used
  and understood in social contexts
• Phonemessmallest and most basic units of sound
  in a language
• Morphemessmallest and most basic units of
  meaning in a language

11
Language Acquisition

• Some aspects are innate, others learned
• Not just imitation
• 1950sBerkoshowed that kids learn rules to
  generate and test hypotheses
• Overregularizationgoed instead of went
• Different cultures teach language diff
• Kaluli of Papua New Guineabelieve children wont
  learn language or conversation skills unless
  explicitly taught
• Samoa-no real language instructionkids actually
  learn from older sibs
• Chomsky1967language acquisition device

12
Language Differences

• Dyslexia-- Firth et al 2001
• Looked at English, French, Italian writing and
  dyslexiain English there are 1120 ways of rep of
  40 phonemes, Italian-33 graphemes for 25 phonemes
• Some words exist in some languages but not others
• Wharf, 19563 words for snow in Eskimo, only one
  in English
• Literal equivalents may not have same
  connotations
• Self/other referents

13
Pragmatics

• Collectivists
• More likely to drop pronouns
• Japanrate intimacy higher for words related to
  ingroups (coworkers, students)
• Also use yes as a regulator
• Individualists (American)greater self-disclosure
• Differences in apologies
• Americans preferred explanation, Taiwan preferred
  compensation
• Japanmore direct, extreme apology, Americans
  prefer more indirect, less extreme

14
Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis

• Speakers of different languages think differently
  because of the differences in their languages
• Supporting Research
• 1958Navajo vs. EnglishCarroll and Casagrande
• Navajo has words that indicate very specialized
  ways of handling different shaped objects and
  found that Navajo kids are more likely to use
  shapes to categorize
• 1954Brown and Lenneberg
• Accuracy with which a color is remembered is
  related to how easily coded it is
• More recently
• Research against
• Work on color being biologically- based
  regardless of linguistic diff in labeling
• Bottom linesome support for this theory, but
  some areas may be too bio based

15
Bilingualism

• Knowledge of more than 1 language can increase
  cognitive flexibility
• Foreign language processing difficultynegative
  impressions (lower IQ) because people speaking in
  2nd language take more time to process info
• Foreign language effecttemporary decline in
  thinking ability of people who are using a
  foreign language in which they are less proficient

16
Personal Space

• Hall, 1966
• Work on proxemicsthe interrelated observation
  and theories of mans use of space as a function
  of culture
• 4 distance areas
• Intimate-0-18 in. reserved for our closest and
  most trusted friends
• Personal distance1.5-4 ft.small protective
  sphere or bubble that an organism maintains
  between self and othersconversations with people
  with whom we are comfortable
• Social distance4-12 ft.conversations with
  strangers and to conduct business
• Public distancebegins at 12 ft.famous public
  figures, speeches, formal occasions

17
More on Personal Space

• Early studiesRusso and Sommer, 1966unsuspecting
  students left the library more quickly the closer
  a stranger sat to them
• Hall predicted that people from contact cultures
  (cultures emphasizing touch and close contact)
  would interact at closer distances
• Arabstouch more, more visual contact, face to
  face orientation, less distance between each
  other. Speak loudlybelieve loud is sincere,
  soft is devious. Arabs stand close enough to
  smell each others breath
• Latin Americanssmall physical distances
• USmedium
• Japanlarge
• Sussman and Rosenfeld, 1992

18
Nonverbal Behavior

• Purposes
• Illustratorsnonverbal behavior that highlights
  aspects of the words we speak
• Adaptors/manipulatorsall cultures have etiquette
  about these
• Emblemsnonverbals that convey a message by
  themselves
• Only a small fraction of the meaning people get
  in an interaction comes from spoken words.
• When speech and nonverbals dont agree, nonverbal
  is dominant

19
Gestures

• Many are culture specific
• Some cultures are very expressive with gestures
  as illustratorsItalian, Jewish
• OthersJapan, Thaimore reserved
• Get used to what we see with respect to
  gesticulation
• Two types
• Referentialmeaning can be derived from the
  gesture itself
• Conventionalmeaning is dependent on
  culture-specific codes and conventions

20
Eye Contact

• CCamong people of unequal status, looking
  directly in the eye is more common in Anglo-Saxon
  cultures than in Latino or Native American
  cultures
• Arabsmore eye contact
• Asiansless eye contact
• USmiddle

21
Encountering a Stranger

• A stranger is simultaneously within (physically
  present) and without (not acquainted)Simmel,
  1950
• Immediate result of being in a new situationlack
  of security
• Physique, dress, mannerisms, speech may indicate
  that a person belongs to a different group
• People may believe that strangers group follows
  a different lifestyle
• May worry that interacting with stranger is
  disloyal
• May believe that strangers group is aggressive
  toward their own
• Probable outcome avoidance
• Unlessrole constraints (customer, guest,
  teacher, employer)
• May be curious or open to novel experiences
• Find stranger physically attractive
• Come from a culture that encourages accommodation
  of diversity

22
Identity Cues

• Gender, age, race, attractiveness, body shape,
  baby-facedness, clothing, proxemics, body odor,
  gaze behavior, speech volume speed, fluency,
  accentedness
• Allows us to use stereotypes and make snap
  judgments
• Ingroup or not?
• Certain categories are universally salient
• Distinctiveness of a persons behavior
• Prototypicality
• Deviations from normal speech in terms of accent,
  syntax, or grammar

23
Intercultural Communication

• 2 processes
• Encodingprocess by which people select the mode
  by which well communicate
• Decodingprocess by which receive signals from an
  encoder and translate those into meaning
• Signalsspecific words and behavior sent in a
  communication
• Messagesmeaning that is intended or received
• Uncertainty is a hallmark of intercultural
  communication
• Misattributions

24
Context

• Hall, 1976
• High vs. low context cultures
• Highmuch of the information is transmitted in
  the physical context, implicit messages rely
  less on spoken language
• Low-much of the information is in explicit code
• LC countries are used to very explicit contracts,
  but this can be insulting in HC cultures

25
Speech Accommodation

• May be one way or mutual
• Or, if groups are antagonistic toward each other
  or if group membership is salient, divergence of
  speech may occur
• Those who speak in second language may be assumed
  to have preferences more like those of 2nd
  language (Bond, 1985)
• And 2nd language speaker may have cognitive
  shifts when speaking

26
Stumbling Blocks to Effective Communication

• Assumptions of similarities
• Language differences
• Nonverbal misinterpretations
• Preconceptions and stereotypes
• Tendency to evaluate
• High anxiety or tension

27
Intercultural Communication Competence

• Gudykunst, 1993
• Motivational factors
• Knowledge factors
• Skill factors
• Basically, knowledge and skills must be combined
  with openness and flexibility
• Intercultural sensitivity
• Bennett, 1979, 1988
• 6 stagesdevelopmental continuum of ethnocentrism
  to ethnorelativism
• Denial
• Defense
• Minimization of impact or importance
• Acceptance
• Adaptation
• Integration of plurality

28
Emotions

• Affectan evaluative response that includes a
  combination of physiological arousal, subjective
  experience, and behavioral expression
• William James (1884)
• Emotion is embedded into bodily experience
  ?physical experience leads person to feel aroused
  and arousal stimulates the subjective experience
  of emotion
• James-Lange Theory
• Cannon-Bardalternative outlookvarious life
  situations can simultaneously elicit both an
  emotional experience and bodily responses

29
Two-Factor Theory

• Must perceive stimulus
• 1) Must experience physiological arousal
• 2) Must label that sensation

30
Facial Expression of Emotion

• Darwin --facial expressions of emotions are
  evolutionarily adaptive and biologically innate
• Margaret Mead and others--must be learned
• In 1960s, psych began universality studies
• Initial studiesEkman and colleagues showed
  photos of facial expressions to observers in 5
  countriesUS, Argentina, Brazil, Chile and
  Japanlabel expressions
• Ekman et al repeated the study in New Guinea with
  2 preliterate tribes
• Nonhuman primates and congenitally blind infants
  also support the universality theory
• Smiling is universally understood to be happy

31
Cultural Display Rules

• Facial expression of emotion seems to be
  universal but we are often clueless about how to
  interpret emotions of people in other cultures
• Different rules govern how to express emotions
• Most rules are designed to restrain emotions.
• Can assess emotion expression by frequency and
  intensity
• Variations in expression of sadness
• Japanoften smile when informed of a lossdont
  want to offend bearer of bad news
• Tahitireport feeling tired in response to a loss
• Bedouins (Egyptian desert)crying is weakness

32
Experience of Emotion

• Southern Europeans (hot blooded)more increase in
  BP in response to joy, sadness, fear than
  Northern Europeans
• But response is similar ccie., embarrassment
  causes increased body temperature

33
Emotion Appraisal

• Both universal and culturally specific
• Relative intensity
• Butcultures vary in how intense they rate
  emotion in others
• Americans rate emotions as more intense than
  Japan
• But Americans rate subjective (internal)
  experience as less intense than the Japanese
• Appears that Americans exaggerate external
  display attributions

34
Happiness

• Three dimensions moderate effects of happiness on
  well-being
• Arousal
• Chinese/Chinese Americans value low-arousal
  positive states more than high-arousal states
• Discrepancies between low-arousal actual and
  ideal states are more predictive of depression in
  Chinese.
• Social engagement
• Japanese value socially engaged emotions. US
  values socially disengaged
• In Japanese, socially engaged emotions predict
  well-being, in US, socially disengaged emotions
  do
• Emphasis on personal hedonic experience
• In North America, experiences linked to personal
  contexts are linked to better outcomes
• In East Asian cultures, hedonic experiences are
  not linked as strongly to well-being

35
Anger

• Several universal anger provoking antecedents
• But terms for anger arent equivalent
• Englishinvolves letting the other person know
• Ifaluk (Pacific region) songindicates an
  attempt to change behavior of the offending
  personmay be aggressive but may also include
  attempted suicide or refusal to eat
• Collectivist cultureanger is a threat to
  integrity of society. Individualist?right to
  independence and self-expression
• Utko Inuitvirtual absence of anger.

36
Emotion Antecedents

• Cultural similarities
• Baucher and Brandt, 1981asked US and Malaysians
  to generate situations that cause anger, disgust,
  fear, happiness, sadness, or surprise
• Results replicated in Korea and Samoa
• Scherer et al--cc
• Happinessrelationships with friends, temporary
  meeting with friends, achievement
• Sadnessrelationships and death
• Buunk and Hupka, 19877 countriesflirting
  elicits jealousy
• Differences in antecedents
• FearUSstrangers, achievement JapanTraffic,
  relationships
• Angermore commonly due to strangers in Japan
  than US or Europe
• Latent and manifest antecedents

37
Culture Specific Emotions

• Germanschadenfreudepleasure from anothers
  misfortune
• Japanese-itoshiilonging for an absent loved one
• Amaedependence between 2 people
• Englishfrustration doesnt translate into all
  Arabic languages
• GidjngaliAust. Aborigineone word conveys
  terror, horror, dread, apprehension, timidity,
  fear, and shame
• Location of emotion
• USheart and gut
• Japangut
• Chewong of Malayliver
• Tahitiintestines

38
Motivation

• A condition that initiates, activates, or
  maintains individuals goal-directed behavior
• Origin is biological
• Needa motivated state caused by physiological or
  psychological deprivation
• Drivescondition that directs an organism to
  satisfy a need
• Arousal theories of motivationpeople seek to
  maintain optimal levels of arousal by actively
  changing their exposure to arousing stimuli
• Psychoanalytic explanationspleasure principle
  vs. reality principle
• Humanistic theoriesfocus on human dignity,
  individual choice, and self-worth
• Self-actualization
• Maslows hierarchy
• Physiological
• Safety needs
• Belonging and love needs
• Esteem needs
• Self-actualization
• Learning and motivation
• Intrinsic vs. extrinsic motivation

39
Need for Achievement

• Social need that directs people to constantly
  strive for excellence, success, influence, and
  accomplishment
• McLelland (1958)this motivation is learned
  during childhood
• Linked to social norms
• Confucian dynamism Japan and Hong Kong
• Individualist-success vs. collectivist-success

40
Aggression

• Aggressive motivationdesire to harm or injure
  others
• Aggressiona sequence of behaviors, the goal
  response of which is the injury to the person
  toward whom it is directed
• Avoid using crime as a definition

41
Problems with Using Crime as Definition

• Killing an infant is homicide, right?
• Minturn Sashak (1982)study of HRAF
• Found infanticide in 53 of cases in mostly
  non-industrial societies
• They suggest that infanticide is best termed
  terminal abortion
• Reasons given are very similar to abortion
  (illegitimacy, excess children)
• Almost always done before the naming ceremony
  that announces babies to the community
• Killing an adult also varies
• Among the Kapouku of New Guinea, punishment for
  killing a person varies according to whether or
  not the killing occurred in the village or tribe.
  Intent didnt matter.
• Wife beating is not a crime in many cultures.
• Afghanistan2009 controversial law about marital
  rape
• Protested around the world
• Was repealed, but new law is very rarely enforced

42
Incidence

• Rates of aggression vary considerably
• In some cultures, aggression only occurs when
  alcohol is involved (Finland) or honor is at
  stake (Turkey)
• Within cultures, aggression ranges from very low
  (Iceland, Japan) to very high (Peru, Nigeria)
• Murder rates
• Norway .8/100,000
• China 1.2/100,000
• Finland 2.5/100,000
• US 5.2/100,000
• South Africa 36.5/100,000
• Venezuela 46.2/100,000
• Jamaica 59.5/100,000

43
Simbu and Semai

• Simbu of New Guinea (belongs to Australia)
• Despite prohibitions by Australia, they engage in
  frequent warfare
• Very attitudes about aggression
• Admire the most aggressive
• Sex segregation and male domination
• Currently campaigning to have women in office
• High status males, violent, competitive, loyal
  to mens group
• When fight started, everyone joined in
• Frustration because of shortage of food, no
  confidence in justice system, no chance of
  equitable distribution of resources
• SemaiMalaysian rain forest
• Very negative attitudes toward aggression
• Believe only bad people are violent
• Abundant resources
• Associate great danger with being alone

44
Truk and Tahiti

• Nisbett (1990)another two culture comparison
• Both Truk and Tahiti are in Pacific.
• Truk fish in the dangerous open sea
• Tahiti fish in safer lagoons with plentiful fish
• Trukneed to be aggressive, fearless to fish in
  open sea
• Males are violent fighters, compete with each
  other in physical contests, have many love
  affairs, sire children early, women are
  submissive, men are protective.
• Tahitipeaceful, cooperative.
• Not overprotective of women. No requirement to
  protect honor. Men should be passive and
  submissive, ignore slights.

45
Situational Variables

• When resources are limited and basic motives are
  aroused, aggression is common
• Large cities are more violent than rural areasin
  part due to deindividuation.
• Less aggression in democracies
• Shortage of resources and increased rates of
  unpredictable events increases aggression
• Observing aggression increases aggression

46
Physiological Conditions and Aggression

• Some evidence that any kind of strong arousal may
  facilitate aggression
• Heat and humidity
• Noise, pain, insult, frustration, hunger,
  exposure to sexual stimuli
• Hot climates are more aggressive than cold
  onestrue both seasonally and spatially
• Eskimos feel contempt for white people because
  they hunt each other like animals

47
Other Factors

• Exposure to the media, but not everywhere
• Inequality of opportunity
• R/P ratioratio of GNP controlled by top and
  bottom 10 of the income distribution
• Norway 6.1
• United States 15.9
• South Africa 33.1
• Honduras 59.1
• Testosteronenot as big as you might think

48
Gender and Sexuality

• Gender stereotypes
• Williams and Best (1982
• High degree of pancultural agreement
• Also, male traits were viewed as more in some
  countries (Japan, South Africa), females more
  in others (Italy, Peru)
• Male traitsgenerally stronger and more active
• Children agreed with adults
• Then looked at sex role ideology
• Women had more modern views
• More modern/egalitarian cultures tended to be
• More developed
• More urban
• More Christian
• More northern latitudes

49
Men and Women

• Lot of consensus across cultures about men being
  more dominant, having greater autonomy, being
  more aggressive, being more achievement oriented,
  possessing greater strength and endurance
• Common female traitsbeing more deferent,
  providing nurturance, demonstrating more
  affiliation
• Malesmore likely to initiate sexual activity
• Femalesmore likely to express conformity and
  compliance

50
Gender Differences

• Many things are attributed to gender that are
  actually due to something else.
• Cognitive differences
• Men outperform women at spatial tasks in US
• However, women do better on spatial tasks in
  cultures that are loose, nomadic, hunting
  gathering
• Men better in tight, sedentary,
  agriculturally-based cultures
• In agricultural cultures, men need to do heavy
  work?family maintenance tasks go to girls
• Greater role specialization leads to female
  preoccupy with child-rearing activities
• In hunt/gather cultures, there is a higher
  valuation of womens activities

51
Personality and Gender

• Aggression
• Males account for a disproportionate amt of
  violent crime in both industrialized and
  nonindustrialized countries
• Malesmore aggressive in every culture for which
  we have data
•  Anxiety and self-esteem
• In Sweden and Hungary, but not Japan, girls
  report more anxiety than boys in response to
  hypothetical situations
• Overall, boys seem to perceive themselves as more
  competent than girls, but this varies

52
Culture and Sexuality

• Sex culture
• Varies widely
• Universal tabooincest
• Nearly universalmasturbation
• Chastitynot as important in countries such as
  Sweden, Denmark, Germany, Holland
• But in other culturesChina, Iran, Indiachastity
  is important for women
• Labor
• However, even in more traditional sex cultures,
  some non -traditional beliefs exist
• Rathus et al 199370 of Chinese respondents
  didnt denounce extramarital affairs, 50 engage
  in premarital sex, 14 of urban Chinese women
  have extramarital affairs

53
Homosexuality

• Western soc tend to accept homosexuality
• In the rest of the world, varies
• CC facts about homosexuality
• Never predominant or gt5
• Generally frowned on
• Always gt in males
• Always present
• Societies with polygamylow on homosexuality
• Lowest in hunter/gather, middle levels in
  agricultural societies, highest in industrialized
• Increased density of population is related to
  higher levels of homosexuality
• Many countries, is a crime

54
Other Interesting Things

• Kissing is unknown in some African and South
  American cultures
• Among some Arctic cultures, it is normal and
  hospitable to offer your wife to a guest
• Attraction
• Men almost universally prefer good looks
• Women prefer earning potential
• Both men and women want someone kind and
  understanding
• 5 types of menstrual taboos in the HRAF
• Ban on sexual intercourse
• Restrictions on activities and contacts with
  other people
• Taboos against contact with mens ritual
  equipment or weaponry
• Taboos on handling or cooking food
• Total seclusion in a special hut
• Of 156 cultures, 8 had no bans or taboos 19 had
  all types of taboos

55
Female Genital Mutilation

• 80 million women today
• Infibulationsremoval of labia minora, stitching
  together of labia majora by thorns or thread
• Typically by a midwife on girls 5-11
• 28 countriesprimarily Islamic in Africa, but
  some in middle east and far east
• Not required by Koran, but also true that no
  major Islamic religious figures have spoken
  against it
• 1995International Conference on the Status of
  Women in Beijingdeclared FGM as violation of
  human rights
• 1996Board of Immigration ruled that woman from
  Togo (1st day of class) was due political asylum
  to prevent fgm

56
Romantic Love

• On the other hand, Levine et al 1995 asked
  students in 11 nations, If a man/woman had all
  the other qualities you desired, would you marry
  this person if you werent in love with
  him/her?
• Respondents in India, Pakistan, Thailand were
  more likely to answer yes-- yes
• What do people mean by being in love?
• Shaver, Wu and Schwartz, 1991young people in US
  link love with happiness, but China linked love
  with sadness
• Rothbaum Tsangcompared US and Chinese love
  songsChinese songs had more references to
  sadness, future, and context in which love
  occurs, but US songs focused more directly on
  object of love
• Love Attitude Scale of Munro and Adams
• Looked at how strongly respondents endorse 3
  dimensions
• Romantic power (love as a powerful force)
• Romantic idealism (love is the essence of life)
• Conjugal love (love demands careful
  consideration, has a calming love)
• No clear pattern emerging from scale

57
Love and Marriage

• Generally, romantic love is valued highly in less
  traditional cultures with few strong extended
  family ties and less valued in cultures where
  extended family ties reinforce the relationship
  between marriage partners
• Vaidyanathan and Naidoo, 1991found Asian Indian
  immigrants to Canada show generational changes in
  attitudes toward love and marriage
• Gupta and Singh looked at couples in Jaipur,
  Indiasome married for love, others were arranged
• Couples who married for love were only in love
  for first 5 years or so but were less in love
  than arranged marriages after 5 years and much so
  after 10 years
• Arranged marriages are more common in
  collectivist cultures
• India, Pakistan, China
• India How can you let emotional youths decide
  something that affects so many people?
• Japan199324 arranged today about 10
• Marriage meetings

58
Choosing a Mate

• Buss et al 199037 samples, 10,000 people
• 6 continents, 5 islands, 33 countries
• Listed potential mate characteristics
• Both genders rated kind and understanding1st
• Intelligent 2nd
• Exciting personality 3rd
• Healthy 4th
• Religious 5th
• Women generally valued good earning capacity
  higher than men
• Men valued physical appearance more
• Overall a lot of similarity CC
• Except chastityNorth European countries dont
  seem to care but groups in China, India, Iran
  really value chastity

59
Attractiveness

• US researchpeople who are good looking are
  ascribed characteristics like being sensitive,
  kind, sociable, pleasant, likable, interesting
• Greater height for men
• Neat dressersviewed as conscientious
• CC attractiveness
• Different things are viewed as attract, which
  affects impression formation
• Japanattractiveness is related to large eyes,
  small mouths and small chins
• Korealarge eyes, small and high noses, thin,
  small faces
• Chinamoon shaped face

60
Development and Socialization

• Socializationhow we learn and internalize the
  rules and patterns of a behavior that are
  affected by a culture
• Enculturationthe process by which children adopt
  the manners and ways of their culture (different
  from acculturationlearning a new culture)
• Socialization agentspeople, institutions, orgs
  that exist to help ensure that socialization
  occursparents, peers, sibs, extended family
• Bronfenbrenners ecological systems approach
• Ontogenic developmentindividual
• Microsystemimmediate surrounding such as family,
  school, peers
• Mesosystemlinks between Microsystems
• Exosystemcontexts that indirectly affect kids
• Macrosystemculture, religion, society
• Children are active participants in their own
  socialization

61
Social Class and Socialization

• In large, complex cultures, there are at least 4
  levels.
• Wealthy upper classcan afford luxuries
• Comfortable middle class-pleasant lifestyle
• Struggling working classuncertainty about job
  stability and necessities
• Frustrated underclass
•  Other markers
• Parents from different backgrounds emphasize
  different values
• Class differences are stronger than cultural ones
•  
• Why class?
• Expectations about the world
• What one is comfortable with (if obedience is
  emphasized, kids may be more comfortable with
  highly supervised jobs)

62
Guided Participation

• People who know about a task or skill adjust
  behavior to guide children in learning about a
  culture
• Indiaright hand is eating, left hand is for
  hygienesome kids learn through observation,
  others need someone to, say, hold left hand down
  when eating

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Temperament

• A characteristic behavioral style or typical
  pattern of responding to events in the environ
• Easy
• Difficult child
• Slow to warm up
• Heritabilityabout 50 for extraversion and
  neuroticism
• Goodness of fitmatch bet environ and childs
  temperament
• Masai of Kenyadifficult children survive better
  in times of drought?cry more, attract more
  attention
• Dutch parents vs American parentsAm parents are
  more likely to see difficulty as inherent in
  kids. Dutch see it is environmental
• Malay parents described babies as less regular in
  attn, less adaptable, lower threshold for
  responses to stimuli

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Attachment

• Emotional bond between child and caretakers that
  allows children to feel secure and to know to
  whom they can turn in threatening situations
• Process of attachment seems similar across
  cultures
• 3 types of attach stylessecurely attached,
  anxious/avoidant , anxious resistant

65
Attachment Patterns

• A/A A/R SA
• US 21 14 65
• China 25 25 50
• Germany 35 9 56
• Great Brit 22 3 75
• Israel 7 29 64
• Sweden 22 4 75

66
Parenting

• Each day, 750,000 individuals become new parents
• Parenting stylesBaumrind, 1971, 1993
• Permissive, authoritarian, authoritativeeach
  assoc with kid behavior
• So, we have to look at specific behaviors and
  beliefs
• Richman et al compared
• Gusii of Kenya and Am mothersfound that G held
  and soothed babies more, but looked at and talked
  to them less
• Why might this be?
• Infant mortality is high and hold and soothing
  increases chance of survival
• Belief that language isnt understood by children
  until age 2
• Culture teaches to avoid direct eye contact
• US believes playpen helps teach independence
• US believes language learning should begin early
• Mothers vs. fathers
• Spankingleads to aggression and anxiety
  ccLansford et al, 20056 countries
• China, Sweden, Italy, Thailand, India, Kenya
• Mothers in Thailandleast likely to physically
  discipline children, Kenyamost
• More frequent use of discipline was less strongly
  assoc with child aggression and anxiety when it
  was perceived as being more culturally accepted,
  but physical discipline was also associated with
  more aggression and anxiety regardless of
  cultural acceptance

67
Grandparenthood

• Most research in US
• Japantraditionally much respectedgrandmothers
  wore red to show their status. Filial piety
  (respect) was key
• Undergoing big change now
• Decrease in of elderly living with family
• 44 in 1955 were extended family households
• 15 by 1985
• Grandparents believe their status is eroding
• China
• In 80s40 of rural and 24 of urban families
  were 3 generation families
• 4-2-1 problem
• Falbo, 1991--found no consequences (like
  spoiling) for kids with grandparents in house ?in
  fact, educated grandparents helped kids
  academically
• But many consider sons children their true
  grandchildren vs outside grandkids

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Adolescence

• 17 nations in Europe, NA, and Asia
• What are adolescents primary concerns?
• Family, education, self-concept
• Turkeypersonal future, relations with others,
  identity
• Singaporesucceeding in school, getting a good
  job, general concern for future
• 30 studies in 14 countries
• 3 major domains of concern
• Major normative life events (career, established
  a family)
• Non-normative life events related to parents
  (death, divorce)
• Global events (nuclear war, AIDS, terrorism)
• But adolescents from traditional cultures were
  somewhat more concerned about family issues
• Peer influences
• Specific behavior varies
• eg., Adolescents in Greece and Italy drink 2x as
  much as in Ireland

69
Education

• TIMSSTrends in International Mathematics and
  Science Studymost recent, 2007
• 8th grade Global Rank Math Science
• Singapore 1 593 567
• Taiwan 2 598 561
• South Korea 3 597 553
• Japan 4 570 554
• Hong Kong 5 572 530
• Hungary 6 517 539
• England 7 513 542
• Czech Republic 8 504 539
• Russia 9 512 530
• Slovenia 10 501 538
• United States 11 508 520
• Lithuania 12 506 519
• Australia 13 496 515
• Sweden 14 491 511
• Armenia 15 499 488
• Italy 18 480 495

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Education

• Differences in math begin to show by 1st grade
• Why?
• Not biology. No differences in IQ have been
  found.
• Social and cultural factors
• LanguageJapanese language indicates value of
  numbers 2-10-1 versus our 21at a young age,
  kids make fewer errors in counting
• School systems
• Schools reflect what a culture thinks is
  important both now and for future success
• Teaching reflects location
• Pulawat of Micronesialearn math through
  navigation
• Hours in school-- of days/yr and hours/day and
  time on math

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More Social and Cultural Factors

• Parental and familial values
• Am value innate ability, China and Japanvalue
  effort
• Fundamental attribution error issues
• Chao, 1996Chinese mothers of preschoolers convey
  high value on education?self-sacrifice for
  childrens success
• Attitudes and appraisals of students
• Pang, 1991reported Asian Am kids had higher
  desire to please parents , higher parental
  pressure and higher parental support than Euro Am
  kids
• Attributional styles
• Teaching styles
• Chinese and Japanese teachers spend a greater
  of time working with the whole class than Am
  teachers
• Am teachers use praise, Japanese use mistakes as
  lessons

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Cognitive Development

• Piaget
• 0-2 sensorimotorobject permanence
• 2-6 preoperationaldev of language, use of
  symbols
• 6-12 concretereversibility, conservation
• 12 on formalhypotheticals, abstracts
• Evaluation
• Criticisms in the West
• Underestimates childrens competence
• Age norms dont fit the data
• Neglects social factors
• Theory describes but doesnt explain
• Ignores post adolescent dev
• Buta sig impact in the West

73
Piaget Cross-Culturally

• Infancysensorimotor period least studied of 4
  cc.
• Childhood
• Early studies found a distinct adv for Western
  kids
• Kamara, 1977 pointed out three flaws
• The study of thinking depends on language, but
  most researchers had little knowledge of language
  they were studying
• P favored clinical interviews, but these studies
  used tasks req little language to explain
  thinking
• Birth dates werent always availableestimates
  were off by as much as 2 years
• Mexican pottery makers kidsdevelop conservation
  earlier

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Formal Operations

• Adolescence
• Some researchers (Byrnes, 1988, Shea, 1985) think
  some individuals in some cultures will never dev
  this
• This assumes scientific reasoning in this way is
  valued by all cultures in the same way
• No/little formal operations in studies in Rwanda,
  New Guinea, some others

75
Moral Development

• Kohlbergs Theory of Morality
• Preconventionalcompliance with rules to avoid
  punishment and gain rewards
• Conventionalconformity to rules that are defined
  by others approval or societys rules It is
  against the law.
• Postconventionalon the basis of individual
  principles and conscience
• Influential in Western psychology, but challenged
  by Gilligan as biased toward the male view
• Indeed many studies of women and other cultures
  find that they operate as adolescents
• Buddhist monks (Huebner Garrod, 1993)reach
  stage 2, maybe stage 4 by mature adulthood
• Chinaand presumably other collectivist
  culturesmore interested in interconnectedness
  and interdependence

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Other Models

• Distributive justice
• Need, equity, equality
• Swedenneed based
• USequityProtestant work ethic
• Indiaexchanging helping behavior for helping
  behavior is a moral obligation, not a choice
• Erikson8 stages of dev
• Works as a framework
• But less useful for CC experimentation
• Strongly values individualism
• Helpful instead to look at culturally identified
  life tasksself-generated themesmore emic
  approach