Psychological Foundations of Curriculum

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Psychological Foundations of Curriculum

• Amy C. Tate
• Tiffany Goad
• Mike Gralish

2
Focusing Questions

1. In what ways do psychological foundations enable
   curriculum workers (teachers, supervisors, and
   curriculum developers) to perform their
   educational responsibilities?
2. How would you compare the three major theoretical
   schools of learning?
3. How has the view of multiple intelligences
   influenced the field of curriculum? How might
   this concept of intelligence influence the field
   in the future?
4. How does constructivism incorporate the most
   recent views of learning?
5. How should the concept of learning styles
   influence the thinking of those responsible for
   curriculum development and delivery?
6. How should an educator use the information about
   various types of thinking?
7. How would you define humanistic learning in
   schools?
8. In what ways can addressing emotional
   intelligence be justified in the curriculum?

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What is Psychology?

• Psychology is the scientific study of mental
  functions and behavior including
• perception, cognition, behavior, emotion,
  personality, and interpersonal relationships.
• The major theories of learning have been
  classified into three groups
• Behaviorist theories
• Focuses on stimulus response and reinforcers
• Studies conditioning, modifying, or shaping
  behavior through reinforcement and rewards
• Cognitive theories
• Focuses information processing in relation to the
  total environment
• Studies developmental stages, understanding,
  multiple forms of intelligence, problem solving,
  critical thinking, and creativity.
• Phenomenological and Humanistic theories
• Focuses on the whole child, their social,
  psychological, and cognitive development.
• Studies focus on human needs, attitudes, feelings
  and self-awareness.

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Do the major theories agree?

• Psychology theories provide insight into
  understanding the teaching and learning process
• What is learning?
• Why do learners respond as they do to teachers
  efforts?
• What impact does the school and culture have on
  students learning?
• Psychology theories provide principles and
  direction for curriculum developer
• How should curriculum be organized to enhance
  learning?
• What is the optimal level of student
  participation in learning the curriculums various
  contents?

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Behaviorism

• Key Players
• Thorndike Connectionism
• Pavlov (and Watson) Classical Conditioning
• Skinner Operant Conditioning
• Bandura Observable Learning and Modeling
• Gagné Hierarchical Learning

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Edward Thorndike
(1874 1949)

• Father of modern educational psychology founder
  of behavioral psychology
• Started his research with animals using
  stimulus-response (classic conditioning) and
  developed the idea of Connectionism.
• 1928-Thordike conducted his first major study
  with adults.
• Connectionism
• Defined learning as a connection or association
  of an increasing number of habits. (More
  complicated associations means higher levels of
  understanding.)
• Three Laws of Learning

"Photo of Edward Thorndike." Online image 1
February 2009. lthttp//http//faculty.frostburg.ed
u/mbradley/psyography/thorndike.htmlgt
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Three Laws of Learning

• Law of Readiness
• Often misinterpreted as educational readiness
• Deals with attitudes and focus. Why should I do
  this?
• If nervous system is ready, conduction is
  satisfying and lack of conduction is annoying.
• Law of Exercise
• Strength of connections is proportional to
  frequency, duration, and intensity of its
  occurrence.
• Justifies drill, repetition and review.
• Seen today in behavior modification and basic
  skill instruction.
• Law of Effect
• Responses that cause satisfaction strengthen
  connections and discomfort weakens connections.
• Justifies use of rewards and punishments,
  especially Skinners operant model.

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Thorndikes Influence

• Thorndike and other followers believed that rote
  memorization does not necessarily strengthen
  connections.
• There has to be some sort of meaning associated
  with it in order to be transferred to other
  situations.
• Thorndike broke the traditional thinking about
  hierarchy of subject matter.
• One subject was no more important to meaningful
  learning than another.
• Until then, math and science were seen as more
  important to teaching structure.

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Ivan Pavlov
(1849 1936)

• Pavlov was the first to demonstrate Classical
  Conditioning.
• He is best known for his experiment with
  salivating dogs.
• Classical Conditioning
• Eliciting an unconditioned response by using
  previously neutral stimuli.
• Unconditioned stimuli create reflexes that are
  not learned, but are instinctual.
• Neutral and unconditioned stimuli are introduced
  at the same time. Unconditioned stimuli are
  gradually removed, and the neutral stimuli elicit
  the same reflex.

"Pavlov's Drooling Dogs." Online image 1
February 2009. lthttp//http//nobelprize.org/educa
tional_games/medicine/pavlov/readmore.htmlgt
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Pavlovs Dogs

• Pavlovs experiment with salivating dogs best
  demonstrated the principle of Classical
  Conditioning.
• Dogs were trained to salivate at the sound of a
  bell.
• Dogs naturally salivated with food.
  (Unconditioned response)
• A bell (neutral stimuli) was rung every time the
  dogs were fed over a period of time creating the
  association/connection of the bell with food.
• After time, the dogs salivated at the sound of
  the bell alone.
• Pavlovs Dogs Game

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James Watson

• Watson took Pavlovs findings to another level.
• Emphasized that learning was observable or
  measurable, not cognitive.
• Believed the key to learning was in conditioning
  a child from an early age based on Pavlovs
  methods.
• Nurture vs. Nature
• Watsons theories strengthened the argument for
  the influence of experiences as opposed to
  genetics.

vs.
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B. F. Skinner
(1904 1990)

• B.F. Skinner was one of the most influential
  American psychologists.
• He began his research with rats at Harvard and
  pigeons during WWII.
• His work led to the development of the Theory of
  Operant Conditioning.
• The idea that behavior is determined or
  influenced by its consequence.
• Respondent vs. Operant behavior
• Respondent behavior is the elicited response tied
  to a definite stimulus.
• Operant behavior is the emitted response
  seemingly unrelated to any specific stimuli.

Joyce Dopkeen-New York Times. "B.F. Skinner."
Online image 1 February 2009.
lthttp//http//media-2.web.britannica.com/eb-media
/92/110192-004-AC182B61.jpggt.
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Operant Conditioning

• Types of reinforcers (stimuli)
• Primary stimuli fulfilling basic human drives
  such as food and water.
• Secondary personally important, such as
  approval of friends or teachers, winning money,
  awards, or recognition.
• Secondary reinforcers can become primary. Due to
  the wide range of secondary reinforcers, Skinner
  referred to them as generalized.
• Operant behavior will extinguish without
  reinforcement.
• Positive reinforcer presenting a reinforcing
  stimulus.
• Negative reinforcement removing/withdrawing a
  stimulus or reinforcer but it is not punishment.
• Punishment presenting harmful stimuli (rejected
  by Skinner because he felt it interfered with
  learning)
• Reinforcers always strengthen behavior.
  Punishment is used to suppress behavior.
  (B.F. Skinner, A Brief Survey of Operant
  Behavior www.bfskinner.org)

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Operant Conditioning

• Desired operant behaviors must be reinforced in a
  timely manner. Delay of reinforcement hinders
  performance.
• By selecting which behavior to reinforce, we can
  direct the learning process in the classroom.
• Learners can acquire new operants.
• As behavior is shaped, new and more complex
  concepts can be introduced and desired behavior
  again reinforced.

Education is what survives when what has been
learned has been forgotten B.F. Skinner
"Skinner Box." Online image 1 February 2009.
lthttp//http//www.simplypsychology.pwp.blueyonder
.co.uk/skinner20box.jpggt.
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Albert Bandura

• Bandura contributed to the understanding of
  learning through observation and modeling.
• He showed that aggressive behavior can be learned
  from watching adults fighting, violent cartoons
  or even violent video games. Passive behavior
  can also be learned from watching adults with
  subdued
• Repeated demonstration and modeling is used by
  coaches in various sports, military endeavors,
  and is also used in the classroom setting to
  model and practice desired behaviors.

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Robert Gagné
(1916 2002)

• Gagnés Hierarchy of Learning notes the
  transition from behaviorism to cognitive
  psychology.
• The Hierarchy of Learning is an arrangement of 8
  behaviors ranging from simple to complex.
• The first 5 behaviors are Behaviorist, the next 2
  are both behaviorist and cognitive and the last
  (highest form) is cognitive.
• The hierarchy suggests a bottom-up approach to
  learning where general principles/concepts must
  be learned before advanced learning can take
  place.
• He also describes 5 observable and measurable
  learning outcomes

"Photo of Robert Gagne." Online image 1
February 2009. lthttp//http//coe.sdsu.edu/eet/Art
icles/gagnesevents/index.htmgt.
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Gagnés Hierarchy of Learning
Behavioral
Behavioral
Behavioral
Behavioral
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Gagnés Hierarchy of Learning (Cont.)
Behavioral
Behavioral - Cognitive
Behavioral - Cognitive
Cognitive higher order
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Robert Gagné (Cont.)

• Five Learning Outcomes (observable and
  measurable)
• Intellectual Skills
• knowing how to organize and use verbal and
  mathematical symbols, concepts and rules to solve
  a problem.
• Information
• knowing what knowledge and facts
• Cognitive Strategies
• learning strategies needed to process
  information
• Motor skills
• Ability to coordinate movements
• Attitudes.
• Feelings and emotions developed from positive and
  negative experiences.
• Mental operations needed for each outcome differ.
  
• Gagnés Instructional Events lead into cognitive
  psychology.

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Cognitive Psychology
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Background

• Replaced behaviorism as dominant philosophy in
  1960s
• 1. Criticisms of Behaviorism
• Did not explain
• language learning
• why people respond differently to the same
  stimulus
• reinforcement can reduce motivation
• Have you observed this effect?
• 2. Popularity of newly discovered theories of
  Piaget and Vygotsky in the 50s and 60s

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Beginning Mental Model
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Working Mental Model

• Bandura- bridge/transition
• learning is social by observation, modeling,
  imitation

Behavior
Environment
Spectrum
Behaviorism
Cognitive Psychology Pavlov
Skinner Bandura
Vygotsky Piaget
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Basic Characteristics

• Focus on how individuals process information
• Emphasis on memory (storage, retrieval, types)
• Chunking can aide working memory, which is
  limited
• Successful learners transfer information to
  long term memory - infinite in capacity

http//www.personal.psu.edu/users/m/r/mrs331/cogni
tivism.htm
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Behaviorism vs. Cognitive
Attribute Behaviorism Cognitive Theory
Behaviors The end in themselves- the only observable truth Evidence pointing to brain activity- learning
Activation of Prior Knowledge Irrelevant Essential
Teachers role Provide stimulus Prepare environment
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Maria Montessori(1870 - 1952)

• Rationale for including her
• Authors do not place her with progressive child-
  centered approaches-lack of free play vs.
  freedom within structure
• Opposed behaviorist focus on only doing but
  focused also on looking and listening
• Focus on how sensory stimulation from the
  environment shapes thinking

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Montessoris Legacy

• What she did
• Psychiatric Clinic at the University of Rome-
  taught difficult children to read at a normal
  level
• 1906 asked to start a progressive school for slum
  children of Italy- Casa dei Bambini (Childrens
  House)

• Why she was important
• Pioneer of child advocacy- for exceptional
  children, low SES children
• Discuss Tyler Tabas Traditional vs.
  Progressive study (1920- 30HS)
• Modern Irony- expense of Montessori school

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Jean Piaget 1896 - 1980

• Swiss psychologist (Pestalozzi)
• America noticed in the 50s and 60s
• Text reminds us that his theories are not fact,
  and should be taken as suggestive
• Influenced Tyler, Taba, Bruner, Kohlburg
• and MANY MORE!!!

• Tyler- various assessment
• Taba-Too many facts, not enough connections
• Bruner-stages like Piaget, but are revisited to
  develop in complexity
• Kohlburg- moral stages

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Piaget- Cognitive development stages
How would you describe abstract reasoning?
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Piaget

• Like Gagne , stages described as hierarchal
• Learning involves
• assimilation (filing info
• in an existing schema)
• accommodation (changing
• schemata to fit new info)
• Schema theory explains
• importance of accessing prior knowledge
• why cognitive dissonance strategies work

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Lev Vygotsky (1896-1934)

• Russian psychologist
• The West published in 1962
• theory of sociocultural development
• Culture requires skilled tool use (language, art,
  counting systems)
• The Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) distance
  between a students performance with help and
  performance independently.
• learning occurred in this zone
• Q-Is the idea of scaffolding one of building on
  existing knowledge or providing assistance in the
  ZPD?

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Piaget vs. Vygotsky
Piaget Vygotsky
Emphasis Discrete hierarchal stages of the individual Modeling and guided learning
Which comes first social learning (chicken) or development (egg)? development social learning
Discuss examples Toilet learning, attention
span
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Constructivism

• Some include this as a separate theory, other
  include it inside of cognitive theories
• What is learning?
• Individual must construct own knowledge- make
  meaning
• Learner must reshape words- mimicking is not
  enough.
• Learners must make knowledge personally relevant

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Constructivism

• How does learning take place?
• New information is linked to prior knowledge, so
  mental representations are subjective for each
  learner
• Learning is optimal when there is awareness of
  the process- metacognition
• A common misunderstanding regarding
  constructivism is that instructors should never
  tell students anything directly but, instead,
  should always allow them to construct knowledge
  for themselves. This is actually confusing a
  theory of pedagogy (teaching) with a theory of
  knowing. Constructivism assumes that all
  knowledge is constructed from the learners
  previous knowledge, regardless of how one is
  taught. Thus, even listening to a lecture
  involves active attempts to construct new
  knowledge.
• Learning Theories
  Knowledgebase (2009, January). Constructivism at
  Learning-Theories.com. Retrieved January 24th,
  2009 from http//www.learning-theories.com/constru
  ctivism.html