REVISION

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REVISION
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SO WHAT IS PSYCHOLOGY?

• The science of behavior and cognitive processes.
  (Baron, 2001)

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Parent Disciplines of Psychology

• Philosophy- Rene Decartes dualism.
• Other philosophers- interactionism
• Physiology

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In the beginning

• Wilhelm Wundt- "father of modern psychology.
• G. Stanley Hall- Founded the 1st laboratory of
  Psychology at John Hopkins and helped to start
  the APA and was the 1st president.
• Structuralism
• Functionalism
• BehaviorismJohn B. Watson, B.F. Skinner
• Psychoanalytic Theory
• Humanistic Theory

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What should psychology study?

• Structuralism- Wilhelm Wundt psychology should
  focus on analyzing the structure of consciousness
  through Introspection.
• Functionalism- William James ongoing use of
  conscious experience it cannot be broken into
  elements - stream of consciousness.
• Behaviourism- John B Watson B. F Skinner
  advocates the use of strict experimental
  procedures through observable behaviour
  (responses) in relation to the environment
  (stimuli).

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What should psychology study?

• Gestalt psychologists Max Wertheimer the
  whole is greater than the sum of its parts.
  studied thinking, learning, and perception in
  whole units, not by analyzing experiences in
  parts.
• Psychoanalytic theory Sigmund Freud the role of
  the unconscious and other internal processes in
  human behavior and mental disorders.
• Humanistic Theory Free will and and by the
  desire for personal growth.
• Cognitive Theory Concerned with memory,
  thinking, language, learning, decision making
  feelings, and states of consciousness

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Arrange the following in the correct order

• William James created the slogan the whole is
  better than the sum of it parts.
• Wilhelm Wundt studied conscious experience by
  examining its structures.
• John B Watson focused on unconscious causes of
  behaviour.
• Sigmund Freud believed in free will and the
  ability to make choices.
• Max Wetheimer argued that psychologists should
  focus on observable behaviour.
• Carl Rogers focused on unconscious causes of
  behaviour

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• PSYCHOLGY AS A SCIENCE
• relies on a systematic method of generating
  hypotheses, collecting data, and explaining the
  data.

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Goals of Psychology

• Describe
• Explain
• Predict
• and Control some behaviors.

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Essential components of the scientific method

• Accuracy
• Objectivity
• Skepticism
• Open- Mindedness

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Scientific Method vs. Common Sense
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ERRORS MADE WHEN USING COMMON SENSE

• Inconsistency and Contradictory
• The Confirmation Bias
• Availability heuristic
• Rational vs. Intuitive Thought
• Mood effects

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THEORY VS. HYPOTHESIS

• What is a theory?
• An explanation of a phenomenon based on empirical
  findings.
• What is a hypothesis?
• any statement, proposition or assumption that
  serves as a tentative explanation of certain
  facts.

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How Psychologists do scientific research
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METHODOLOGY-refers to the process of doing
research.

• Archival research The source of data that is
  written records e.g. records from schools,
  hospitals etc.
• Observational research Naturalistic/Non-Participa
  nt Participant Observation.
• Surveys systematic way of asking people about a
  topic- interviews, questionnaires.
• Case studies detailed study of one or more
  individuals
• Correlational research measures relationship
  between two variables- association not causation.
• Experimental research manipulation of variables
  to reach causal conclusion of the variables.

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Cause and effect can be evaluated with the use of
Independent and Dependent Variables.

• CAUSE
• Independent variable
• manipulated by the experimenters so that the
  effects of various levels may be determined.
• EFFECT
• Dependent variable
• the measured outcome or result.

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Questions

• 1. What does it mean if two variables have a
  positive correlation?
• 2. In what type of study does a researcher study
  an individual subject in depth?
• 3. Which research method allows a researcher to
  get information about a large number of subjects
  relatively inexpensively and easily?
• 4. When doing research involving deception with
  human subjects, researchers have an obligation to
  do what?
• 5. Why is it problematic to draw cause-and-effect
  conclusions based on correlative data?

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• Dr. A is studying whether babies are more
  pleasant based on their interaction with more
  smiling mothers. His hypothesis is that there is
  an association between parents who smile more
  and babies pleasant facial expression.
• He conducts an interview with each parent to
  assess if they smile often if any at all with
  their children and the resultant level of
  pleasant expression that babies have.
• Dr. A found that on average, the babies with the
  smiling mothers tend to have more pleasant babies
  with than the expressionless mothers.
• a. What is Dr. As research design?
• b. What is he interested in studying?
• c. How do these variables interact?
• d. What is the strength of the relationship?
• e. What is the direction the relationship?

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ETHICAL ISSUES IN PSYCHOLOGY

• CONDUCT
• INFORMED CONSENT
• DECEPTION
• CONFIDENTIALITY
• COMPETENCE
• DIVERSITY

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HUMAN DEVELOPMENT
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What is the Developmental Psychology?

• It is the field of study that examines patterns
  of growth, change, and stability in behaviour
  that occur throughout the entire human lifespan
  (Feldman, 2000, p. 5).
•  

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When does human life begin?

• Human development begins at conception when the
  fathers sperm cell unites with the mothers ovum
  (egg cell). This one-cell (which is now
  fertilized) is called a zygote.
•  

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Genetic Code

• The DNA sequences that define each person.
• Sperm and Egg
• 23 chromosomes from the fathers sperm and 23
  chromosomes from the mothers egg. When the egg
  is fertilized by the sperm they form 23 pairs.
• Sex Chromosomes
• The 23rd pair of chromosomes which determine a
  persons sex, male or female. X female Y male.
• Determined by father.

(Rathus, 2005)
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Figure 2.3 The 23 Pairs of Human Chromosomes.
People normally have 23 pairs of chromosomes.
Whether one is female or male is determined by
the 23rd pair of chromosomes. Females have two X
sex chromosomes, whereas males have an X and a Y
sex chromosome.
(Rathus, 2005)
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PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT
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PRENATAL STAGES

• Divided into three stages
• Germinal stage the sperm cell fertilize the ovum
  
• Embryonic stage after implantation the zygote
  further develops into an embryo weeks 2-8- face,
  arms, legs.
• Fetal stage next 7 mths the human form becomes
  increasingly visible

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Environmental Influences on Prenatal Development

• Maternal Age early 20s
• Maternal Health and Nourishment
• Infectious Agents
• Smoking and Drug Use
• Alcohol

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What about the Fathers?

• the quality of the fathers sperm- the fathers
  age is related in some cases of DS.
• Alcohol use

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Fill in the blanks

• Once implantation of the zygote is completed, the
  _____ stage of prenatal development begins.
• Prenatal development is divided into three stages
  __, __ and __.
• This environmental factor goes straight into the
  blood stream of the fetus and takes a longer time
  to be eliminated from its system __.
• The rapid multiplication of the fertilized cell
  is known as __.

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• PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT DURING EARLY YEARS

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THE MOTOR DEVELOPMENT

• Motor development is the progressive change in
  movement throughout the life cycle.

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There are 3 stages of motor development

• Infanthood- 0-2 yrs. rapid growth, simple
  reflexes
• Early Childhood- 2-6 yrs. move from an ugly
  ducking to a swan, skip, hop, fine eye-hand
  coordination
• Later Childhood- masters developmental skills,
  very good eye hand coordination, growth is
  relatively slow.

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BRAIN DEVELOPMENT
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• The brain undergoes its most rapid development
  during the first two to three years of the
  childs life.
• After age 3 the rate of the brain growth slows
  but continues throughout childhood.
• A neonate is born with nearly all their neurons,
  however, other areas of brain development occur
  after birth.
• The most highly developed parts of the brain at
  birth are the brain stem and midbrain these
  parts are involved in arousal and involuntary
  body functions, such as respiration.

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• There is also a thickening of the cerebral cortex
  (outer portion of the brain) during the first 3
  months of life.
• This leads to a development of primary motor
  areas (that control limb and other body
  movement).
• By 6 months, the primary sensory and motor areas
  are highly developed.

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• SENSORY AND PERCEPTUAL DEVELOPMENT

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SENSORY DEVELOPMENT

• Sight, smell, sound, taste, touch and posture is
  activated and in time strengthened neural pathway
  
• hearing provides the earliest link between the
  mother and the newborn and continues to be the
  source of comfort.
• Vision takes longer to develop. Eye muscles are
  weak hence eye coordination is poor.

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PERCEPTUAL DEVELOPMENT

• Perception - the higher-order process of
  integrating, recognizing, and interpreting
  complex patterns of sensations
• Perceptual development is an active process --
  the infant actively participates in acquiring and
  interpreting perceptual information.
•   Maximum perceptual development takes place
  between the ages of three and a half and seven
  years of age.
• Infants learn through perceptual experience
  perception leads to new knowledge, which in turn
  influences future perception.

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Depth Perception

• Depth perception seems to develop by 6 8 months
  at the same time that the infant begins to crawl.
  
• To determine the existence of depth perception in
  children a device called a visual cliff was
  developed by two Cornell University psychologists
  in the late 1950s.

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Fill in the blanks

• If ___ are not stimulated then proper brain
  development will not occur.
• The process through which the infant actively
  participates in acquiring and interpreting
  sensory information is known as ____.
• ___ is not only a source of comfort for the
  infant but it provides the earliest link between
  the mother and the newborn.

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• COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

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• JEAN PIAGET
• Swiss child psychologist 1896 1980.

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Perspectives of Cognitive Development

• Structural-functional approach
• Information processing approach

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Piagets Structural-functional approach

• Structure- processing information
• Function- how the child adapts to his environment
• Children are active thinkers of their
  environment- they use
• 1) Adaptation
• a) accommodation- modification of existing
  schemas
• b) assimilation- incorporate new information
• 2) Organization 

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Piagets Stages of Cognitive Development  

• Sensorimotor stage (birth-2 years) - figuring out
  ways to make things to happen.
• Preoperational stage (2 years-7 years) - growth
  of symbolic activity.
• Concrete Operational stage (7 years -11 years) -
  uses logic to answer causal relationships
• Formal Operations stage (12 years and up) -
  quality of intelligence on which science and
  philosophy is built.

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Criticisms of Piagets Theory

• He underestimated
• the cognitive talents of infants and young
  children, e.g. Object permanence.
• The age at which a child achieve certain skills
• the importance of social interactions between
  children and caregivers in the childrens
  cognitive development.
• Piagets theory gives little attention to the
  impact of language development.

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Questions

• Lists in the correct order Piagets stages of
  cognitive development briefly describe each
  stage
• A child is able to pretend that a large box is a
  school bus. Piaget would suggest that she is in
  the ___
• According to Piaget, cognitive adaptation to the
  environment is achieved through the dual
  processes of ___ and ___
• In Piagets theory, the process of modifying
  existing cognitive structures in response to
  experience and new information is called ______

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Moral DevelopmentRight Wrong

• Kolbergs theory has 3 levels
• Pre-conventional level - stages 12
• Conventional level - stages 34
• Post Conventional level- stages 56

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Kohlbergs moral development

• Stage 1 Morality is viewed in terms of
  consequences
• Stage 2 Morality is viewed in terms of our needs
  or that of others
• Stage 3 Morality is viewed in terms of societal
  rules or norms
• Stage 4 Morality is viewed in terms of social
  rules/laws that is applied socially
• Stage 5 Morality is viewed in terms of human
  rights
• Stage 6 Morality is viewed in terms of ethical
  principles

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Criticisms of Kohlbergs Theory

• One criticism states that we have to consider the
  cross-cultural aspect.
• Concern about gender differences in moral
  development of morality. Does Kohlbergs theory
  apply to females?
• Concern with the consistency of moral judgments.

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Questions

• The best advice to give pregnant women would be?
• According to Piaget, cognitive development
  involves interplay between _____ and _____.
• According to Kohlberg, at what level of moral
  development do children tend to judge behaviors
  in terms of the consequences they produce?
• Erikson is to Piaget as

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At what age do infants begin to experience and
demonstrate discrete emotions?

• Research in this area focuses on facial
  expression outward signs of distinct emotions.
•  
• 2 month old infants demonstrate social smiling in
  response to human faces.
•  
• 2 month old infants show pain expressions more
  than anger expressions. A few months later they
  show anger more frequently than pain.
• 3- 4 month old infants show laughter.
• As they grow older, infants acquire increasing
  capacities to read the emotional expressions of
  others.

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WHAT IS TEMPERAMENT?

• Stable individual differences in the quality and
  intensity of emotional reaction.
• 3 categories of temperaments
• Easy children (40) generally cheerful, adapt
  readily to new experiences
• Difficult children (10) are irregular in daily
  routines, are slow to accept new situations
• Slow--to-warm-up-children (15) relatively
  inactive and show mild negative reactions when
  exposed to unexpected event or new situations.

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ATTACHMENT John Bowlby

• Secure attachment
• Ambivalent Attachment
• Avoidant Attachment
• Disorganized attachment

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Key caretaking question Can I count on my
attachment figure to be available and responsive
when needed?

• Noavoidant
• Yessecure
• Maybeambivalent

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Secure

• Explores in mothers presence
• Cries when mom leaves
• Shows pleasure when she returns
• Mothering synchronous

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Insecure

• a.    Avoidant
• Dont explore in moms presence
• Dont cry when mom leaves
• Dont respond to moms return
• Mothering unavailable, rejecting, neglectful

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Insecure

• b.  Ambivalent/resistant
• Dont explore clingy
• Distressed when mom leaves
• Hard to soothe upon moms return
• Mothering inconsistent

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Insecure

• c. Disorganized
• Variable behavior
• Contradictory behavior
• Lack emotion

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Questions

• Personality is defined as the stable individual
  differences in the quality and intensity of
  emotional reaction. True/False?
• What are the three types of temperaments?
• Distinguish between securely attached adults and
  an insecurely avoidant attached adults.

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• HUMAN DEVELOPMENT
• ADOLESENCE
• ADULTHOOD

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ADOLESCENCE

• Begins with puberty
• Physical changes - increase height and weight
  known as a growth spurt
• Cognitive changes - problem-solving skills, an
  increased reliance on the use of symbols, logic
  and abstract thinking.
• Emotional changes - time of turmoil, joy,
  confusion, depression (mood swings)
• Challenges - Drugs and sex

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PARENTING STYLES THEIR EFFECTS ON ADOLESCENTS

• Authoritarian
• high in demandingness (restrictive) and low
  responsiveness (rejecting).
• Strict and rely on force.
• Cold and rejecting.
• Authoritative parenting
• high in demandingness and responsiveness.
• Strict but are willing to reason with their
  children.
• Most competent children come from this type.

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PARENTING STYLES THEIR EFFECTS ON ADOLESCENTS

• Indulgent/ Permissive parenting
• high in responsiveness and low in demandingness.
• Easygoing, warm and supportive.
• Rejecting/ Neglectful parenting
• low in both demandingness and responsiveness.
• Leave children on their own.
• Make few demands.
• Show little warmth or encouragement.

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Eriksons Psychosocial Stages

• Trust Vs Mistrust- 1st yr of life
• Autonomy Vs Shame and Doubt- 2nd yr of life
• Initiative Vs Guilt- 3-5 yrs
• Industry Vs Inferiority- 6-11/12 yrs
• Identity Vs Role Confusion
• Intimacy Vs Isolation
• Generativity Vs Self absorbtion
• Integrity Vs Despair

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• Family Configuration and its Effects on the
  Adolescent
• Divorced
• Parent-Absent
• Blended Families

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ADULTHOOD

• As an adult, health may become a concern.
  Psychological adjustments need to be made to
  marriage, parenthood, career, the death of
  friends and family, retirement, and ultimately,
  ones own death.

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Challenges of Early- Middle Adulthood

• Marriage and family
• Transition to parenthood
• Career choice

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• Marriage and Family
• Stage 6- intimacy vs. isolation
• Three factors influence the choice of marriage
  partner.
• Availability need the opportunity to develop
  the relationship first
• Eligibility age, race, religion, politics, and
  background comes into play here.
• Attractiveness physical attractiveness,
  psychological attractiveness understanding,
  emotional supportiveness and similarity in values
  and goals.

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• 2. The Transition to Parenthood
• Stage 7 Adulthood/Middle Adulthood concern
  for family and future generations, becoming
  parents.
• Changes in marriage relationship becomes more
  stressful, have less time for each other, less
  spontaneity.
• Marital satisfaction goes down during the child
  rearing years, but increases when the children
  leave the nest.

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• 3. Career Choice
• Choice of occupation and satisfaction goes a long
  way toward self-esteem and identity.
•  
• Stage 7 Women experience menopause, men sometimes
  experience mid-life crisis.
•  

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• Development during Late Adulthood

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• Stage 8 Maturity/Later Adulthood during this
  period children have long left the nest and now
  there are grandchildren.
• Retirement is welcomed by most.
• With age, mental speed is reduced, memory loss is
  apparent, some sensory capacity diminish
• Ageism is the name given to discrimination and
  prejudice against a group on the basis of age.

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Death and Dying

• Elizabeth Kubler-Ross 1960s. - Stage theory
• Denial
• Anger
• Bargaining
• Depression
• Acceptance

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Psychoanalytic Approach

• Sigmund Freud 1856-1939
• The Freudians and neo-Freudians
  UNCONSCIOUS

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BASIC CONCEPTS OF PSYCHOANALYTIC

• Levels of Consciousness
• CONSCIOUS
• PRECONSCIOUS
• UNCONSCIOUS
• Basic Instincts - behaviour emerges as we attempt
  to satisfy these innate biological drives. What
  are they?
• Structures of Personality- ID, EGO and SUPEREGO
• Defense Mechanisms

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DEFENSE MECHANISMS

• Repression
• Sublimation
• Denial
• Rationalization (Intellectualization)
• Fantasy
• Projection
• Regression
• Displacement
• Reaction Formation
• Compensation

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Fill in the appropriate defense mechanism for
each example.

• Chad teases and annoys his kid brother Nathan
  after he himself is bullied and picked on by his
  older brother.
• Despite overwhelming evidence a murder
  conviction, Jay's mother refused to believe her
  son could kill someone.
• After the birth of his baby brother, five-year
  old Larry began wetting his pants again.
• The habitual drinker insists he hates the taste
  of alcohol and drinks with friends "just to be
  sociable.
• Roger justifies his shoplifting by saying that
  everyone shoplifts.

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FREUDS 5 PSYCHOSEXUAL STAGES OF PERSONALITY
DEVELOPMENT

• Oral Stage- Birth to 1 yr
• Anal Stage- 1- 3yrs
• Phallic Stage- 3- 5 yrs
• Latency Period- 6- puberty
• Genital Stage- 11- 18 yrs

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Questions

• Feeling guilty over adolescent sexual exploration
  is a result of which personality structure?
• Unconsciously hating your younger brother might
  be an example of?
• Bobby tells his mom, "When I grow up I'm going to
  marry you." Freud might consider this an example
  of
• An infant left to cry in her crib for long
  periods of time might, according to Erikson,
  develops ?

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The Psychoanalytic Approach After Freud

• Neo- Freudians
• Carl Jung (1875-1961)
• Alfred Adler (1870-1937)
• Karen Horney (1885-1952)

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BEHAVIOURAL- LEARNING APPROACH

• Behaviourists Overt (see-able) behaviour
• Personality is acquired through learning i.e
  relatively permanent change in behavior that
  occurs as a result of practice or experience
• We learn by reinforcement, punishment and
  observation.

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LEARNING THEORIES

• Classical Conditioning
• Operant Conditioning
• Observational Learning

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WHICH THEORY?

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Operant conditioning

• Associated with E. L. Thorndike B.F. Skinner
• key elements
• PUNISHMENT REINFORCEMENT
• any act that INCREASES behaviour REINFORCEMENT
• any act that DECREASES behaviour PUNISHMENT.  

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Reinforcers Versus Punishments

• Reinforcers are known by their effects.
• Punishments are known by how they feel.
• Punishments are aversive events that suppress or
  decrease the frequency of behavior they follow.
• Punishment often fails to achieve the goals of
  parents, teachers, and others.

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Positive reinforcement

• INCREASES BEHAVIOUR BY GIVING REWARD AFTER
  BEHAVIOUR IS PERFORMED. praise, candy  
• 1). Primary reinforcers natural/unlearned
  does not require previous experience to be
  effective. Usually related to an organisms
  survival and are usually biological or
  physiological. Example food, water, sex, love.
  
• 2). Secondary reinforcers conditioned, acquired
  or learned reinforcers. Reinforcers may not be
  inherently reinforcing, but there is a strong
  association between them and other reinforcers.
  Example money, praise, grades, promotions.  
•  
• Preferred activities can also be used to
  reinforce behavior, a principle referred to as
  the Premack Principle.

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Negative reinforcement.

• TAKING AWAY SOMETHING IRRITATING WHEN THE
  BEHAVIOUR IS PERFORMED nagging, alarm clock
  
• DO NOT CONFUSE WITH PUNISHEMNT!!!!
• Negative reinforcers are presented before a
  response is made.
• punishment decreases the rate of behavior
  reinforcement ALWAYS increases behaviour..  
•  
•  

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Punishment

• Positive punishment - person gets something they
  dont like after doing the behaviour. They are
  less likely to do it again.spanking,
  reprimands.
• Negative punishment - you take away something
  they like after they do the behaviour. They are
  less likely to do it again. time- outs, take
  away toys.

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WHICH THEORY?
WAAAH!
BANG!
Nothing

BANG!
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Classical Conditioning was developed by ???

• The CR usually produces a weaker effect than UCR.
• The order of pairing of the CS and UCS does
  matter and is important

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WHICH THEORY?
1
2
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Observational Learning

• Albert Bandura Key principle - OBSERVATION.
• FOUR STEPS
• Attention -- notices
• Retention -- remembers
• Reproduction -- copy
• Motivation -- behaviour reproduced depending on
  whether the environment appears to encourage it
  (punishment or reinforcement)

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Evaluating the Behavioral-Learning Approach 

• no free will very deterministic.
• Ignore inner conflicts and influence of
  unconscious thoughts and impulses on behavior.
  
•   

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Questions

• Sam is shy when around his friends, teachers, and
  family. Skinner would suggest that this behavior
  is?
• One of the strong points of behavior theory is
  its?
• Distinguish between positive punishment and
  negative punishment

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HUMANISTIC APPROACH

• Carl Rogers Abraham Maslow
• KEY PRINCIPLES
• personal responsibility and free will
• here and now rather than the past.
• personal growth and fulfillment moving towards
  bigger goals self-actualizing

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THINGS TO REMEMEBER

• self- concept.
• most powerful drive is to become fully
  functioning.
• unconditional positive regard.

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MASLOWS HIERARCHY

• We need to self-actualize
• We have to master our lower needs before we could
  move to the highest need.
• Our personality and subsequently behaviors are
  driven by or ability to master these needs.

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Evaluating the Humanistic-Phenomenological
Approach

• Too much personal responsibility / free will.
• loosely defined concepts. What is
  self-actualization, fully functioning?
• Hard to do systematic research b/c concepts
  cannot be defined or tested. How do you measure
  self-actualizing, self-concept etc?
•  

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COGNITIVE APPROACH

• Key Principle WE ACT AS WE THINK
• beliefs, thoughts, perceptions and attitudes
  about him/herself and the environment are key.
  
• A B C

irrational or rational
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The Trait/Biological Approach 

• KEY Principle enduring characteristics
• Individuals differ in the amount of each of
  these characteristics that they possess.
• 1) stability, 2) consistency and generality and
  3) individual differences

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• 1). Stability permanent, inherent elements of
  personality.
• 2). Consistency and Generality no trait is
  expected to appear all the time or in every
  situation.
• 3). Individual Differences individuals are
  unique