Classical Buddhist

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Classical Buddhist Hindu Icons(and their
Homes)
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• Background
• After the disintegration of the Mauryan
  dynasty in 185 BCE, the empire built by Ashoka
  once again dissolved into separately regions, the
  rulers of which were often threatened by invasion
  of border tribes that had formerly been held at
  bay. Within a hundred years the power vacuum
  left by the Mauryans had been filled in northwest
  India by a group of Central Asian nomads known as
  the Kushans, who established a summer capitol
  near Taxila (in present day Pakistan) and a
  winter capital at Mathura on the Yamuna river
  (see map in IAR, p.112). (It is during this same
  period that the Sañchi Stupa was renovated,
  further to the south.) The third and most
  important ruler of this Kushan dynasty was
  Kanishka the first, crowned in 128 CE he
  established trade and cultural connections with
  Roman colonies in Central Asia, which
  participated in trade along the famous silk
  route leading all the way to China. Traders
  soon began to branch off to the south to
  distribute and acquire goods from northern India,
  and soon artisans trained in Roman styles began
  to work in the areas of Gandhara Mathura.
• Buddhist historians point to this period
  as one of strong support for Buddhist
  institutions in the Northwest. Whatever the
  particular interests of Kanishka himself, it
  seems to have been during this period of history
  that the first images of the Buddha in human
  form, which reflect clearly the influence of
  Roman styles in northwest India during this
  period, were made. Over the course of time,
  however, Buddhist iconography evolved clearly
  distinct features and during this and the
  subsequent Gupta dynasty Hindu Jain icons,
  depicting in human form the various gods linked
  to Vedic and Vaishnavite traditions, begin to
  appear as well. Although these images clearly
  pointed to very different unseen worlds for
  Buddhists, Hindus, and Jains, clearly the
  artisans creating such images used common methods
  visual symbols.

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Early Buddhist Hindu Icons (2nd-6th CE)
Stone Buddha images made during the Kushana
period seem to have been part of walls
surrounding and adorning stupas (much like the
attendants and nature spirits seen at Sañci) or
rock-cut gathering halls used primarily by monks.
Sometime during the period of the Gupta dynasty
(early 4th - mid 6th CE), however, the images
themselves became the focus of worship, just as
abstract symbols had been in earlier periods. A
much smaller number stone Hindu icons appear
towards the end of this period as well, though
again it is unclear when such images became the
focus of worship as the fire-offering had been
since early Vedic times. It may also be images
made of wood or clay, which have not survived,
preceded these stone images.
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The first image?

• This sandstone image is the earliest dated
  Buddhist icon made of stone, which its
  inscription claims was made in the third year of
  King Kanishkas reign (131 CE). Actually the
  inscription calls it a bodhisattva, which may
  reflect the increasing emphasis in this region on
  would-be Buddhas other than Siddhartha Gautama.
  Like all other Mathura sculptures, this figure is
  made of locally available red sandstone its
  color would not have mattered since the figure
  would have been originally painted. The cloth,
  interestingly, sticks to the body as if it were
  wet.

5
Buddha Icons at Mathura

• The broad shoulders and well-rounded faces
  of these images, more clearly visible in these
  photographs, is characteristic of Mathura
  sculpture as is the halo behind the head which
  is only partially preserved here. The threefold
  knotted hair at the top of the head will gain
  increasing importance in later Buddhist
  iconography, echoing the threefold umbrella which
  caps major stupas. The elongated ears are a
  standard physical feature of the Buddha described
  since the early days of the tradition as one of
  numerous traits that reveal his divine power.

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• This seated image could well be designed for
  worship following the patterns depicted in
  carvings at Sañci. The seated Buddha is flanked
  by two royal attendants and in the air above the
  intact halo (though difficult to make out in this
  figure) there hover two winged celestial beings.
  Below the figure, making the Buddha look as large
  as a stupa in comparison, are most likely
  disciples honoring the Buddha or some site
  associated with his teaching. The positions of
  right hand (only partly preserved) indicate
  reassures the worshipper, have no fear. This
  type of image became extremely popular and was
  imitated throughout Buddhist Asia.

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Roman influence at Gandhara

• Buddhist sculpture seems to have
  flourished somewhat later, towards the end of
  Kanishkas reign, at Gandhara near the northern
  capital of the Kushana empire. Yet these icons
  reflect much more vividly the influence of the
  Roman artisans who had originally inspired the
  tradition. Most of the figure are bodhisattvas,
  which fits with the widespread influence of
  movements refering to themselves as the Greater
  Way (Mahayana) in this regions during later
  periods.

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The hairstyle of these figures is reminiscent of
the Greek god Apollo the mustache may reflect
Roman influence. The toga-like garments, sandals,
and necklaces are clearly Roman. It may be that
these objects, imported by traders, had become
so familiar to Gandharans that it seemed natural
that divine beings would wear them.
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Gandharans clearly remained interested in the
Gautama Buddha, however. The Gandharan style
continues the earlier tradition of depicting
important sites associated with the Buddha, but
this times puts the Buddha in the picture
(clockwise from lower left) fasting (before
his enlightenment)  teaching lying on his
side preparing to die
10
As in the case of the seated Buddha at Mathura,
a number of the stone Buddha sculptures that came
into use during this period seem to be intended
for independent worship. Although these Buddhas
Roman robes, their faces remain clearly Asian.

• The figure on the right once again is seated
  atop a scene depicting several seated figures.
  Although the exact context of the scene is not
  clear, the large size of the Buddha seated above
  it again echoes the disproportionate size of the
  monumental stupas popular in earlier periods.

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Amaravati Buddhist icons in the south (50-320
CE)

• While Kanishka his successors ruled over
  most of northwest India, the Andhra kingdom
  prospered in the south, and Buddhist practice
  continued to flourish there as it had during
  earlier periods. The rulers of this dynasty were
  influenced by contact with Rome as well, as Roman
  traders came to ports on both western and eastern
  coasts, and may even have established a colony
  off the eastern coast. Though stupas remained
  popular during this period, icons of the Buddha
  appeared as well, especially in the east coastal
  capital of Amaravati. Whether the creators of
  these were influenced by Gandharan styles is an
  open question.

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Iconography during theGupta Dynasty (320-550 CE)

• When the first of the Gupta dynasty rulers
  began uniting many of the territories that had
  been part of Ashokas ancient empire--ruling
  from the same capital of Pataliputra, along the
  Ganges--their sponsorship of arts sciences led
  to a new wave of development in literature,
  architecture, mathematics, medicine. The
  sculpters of the period, likewise, refined and
  added to the artistic styles inherited from the
  Kushans, possibly also drawing on the Andhra
  culture of the South. It seems to have been the
  artists of this period who systematized the way
  that physical attributed said to reflect the
  Buddhas divine status--e.g., the mole between
  the eyes, the bump on top of his head, wheels on
  the palms and soles--were portrayed in sculpture.

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One of the most noticable changes is the
intricate design of halos, which had originally
been smooth in Kushana sculpture. Notice here
once again the cloth sticking to the body as if
wet, a feature of some Kushana period icons.
14
During this period Buddhas all over India come to
resemble one another more and more and these
depictions of the Buddhas features became the
norm for representing him throughout Buddhist
Asia.
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It is during the Gupta period, interestingly,
that we find the first free-standing structures
used to house images for worship. The Sañchi
temples pictured here and on the next slide are
two of only a few surviving structures preserved
from this period. Though Sañchi continued to be
dominated by its stupas, Gupta dynasty monks
clearly also incorporated images into their
worship.
16
Although Roman influence was dwindling by this
time in Indian history, certain distinctively
Roman architectural features had become part of
temple design, and would remain integral to
Indian architecture. Note that the structure of
these stone temples is much simpler than those
that would come to dominate the landscape over
the next thousand years a porch, entryway, and
inner shrine room.
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Early Icons of Vishnu
ShivaThe Gupta rulers sponsored both Buddhist
non-Buddhist religious traditions, as had many
other kings before them. Thus during the period
of flourishing Buddhist iconography, one finds a
smaller number of sculptures (many of which seem
to be the remnants of small temples which have
since been destroyed) depicting Vishnu and Shiva,
the two major deities whose traditions were
rapidly becoming influential during this time,
both claiming some kind of continuity with
ancient Vedic culture.

• This sculpture, which most likely adorned
  the top of a temple column, shows Krishna
  (enlarged in the photo on the right) counseling
  Arjuna as he sits despondent in his chariot. The
  Greek sculptural style is evident here as in the
  bodhisattva sculptures of the Kushana period in
  the Gandhara region.

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Also surviving from this period are images of
Vishnu himself, and indeed the largest temple
preserved from the Gupta period is dedicated to
Vishnu. Unlike sculptures of Gautama Buddha and
other bodhisattvas, Vishnu is often shown with
multiple arms, each holding different symbols of
his power, including the conch shell and the
lotus, as seen in the two late Gupta period
sculptures below. Such multi-limbed depictions
may have been inspired by Vedic references to the
cosmic being as having numerous heads, arms,
legs.
The bronze Kashmiri Vishnu on the right sports
several wheel symbols, most likely reminders of
Vishnus solar radiance the one atop his head
perhaps substituting for a halo (partly preserved
in the other image). In mythological accounts
Vishnu also uses his wheel as a weapon to cut
down enemies.
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Surviving sculptures at other locations reveal
evidence of the growing importance of Vishnus
other incarnations. On the left is depiction of
Vishnu taking form as the celestial sage
Narayana, instructing a pupil, with other deities
gathered above to listen to his teaching (clearly
similar to the deities depicted in some Buddhist
sculptures). On the right is a depiction of
Vishnu taking the form of a boar to rescue the
earth (pictured as a naked woman) from the
primordial flood, as the myriad of Vedic deities
sages look on.
20
Icons of Shiva are found during this period as
well. The linga with faces in four directions
actually dates from the Kushan period in the
region of Mathura where the first Buddhist icons
were made. The Gupta period figure in the middle
(5th CE) depicts Shiva in the human form of a
mountaineer and hunter, as described in the
Mahabharata. Both of these contrast strikingly
with the multi-armed form of Shiva that begins to
appear during the late Gupta period (6th CE).
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2. Traces of Early TempleConstruction (2nd-8th
CE)
It is likely that artisans working for Buddhist,
Hindu Jain patrons built wooden structures to
house many of the symbols images sampled in the
previous section. Although none of these
structures have survived, we see much evidence of
them carved in stone a large number of caves in
mountain cliffs, some free standing structures
carved out of bolders, were painstakingly made to
be used as spaces for gathering and worship.
Initially rock caves seem to have been Buddhist
monastic residences but gradually Hindus Jains
also began to hire rock-cutters. The forms cut
into rock at these sites--most of them dating
from the smaller kingdoms that formed once the
Gupta dynasty dissolved in the mid-6th
CE--clearly imitate earlier wooden structures.
This suggests that wood carving building
techniques must already have been well developed
by the time these rocks were carved and indeed
wood was widely used for buildings in India until
the early twentieth century. Decorative
sculptures preserved at these sites, furthermore,
show icon styles continuing to evolve well beyond
the early Roman-influenced forms of the Kushan
Gupta periods.
22
The Buddhist Monastery at Ajanta(2nd BCE-6th CE,
west central India)
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Gupta period paintings preserved in the oldest
caves
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The Stupa/Image Hall (late 6th CE)
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Inside the Hallstupa Buddha image merged into
one
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Ceiling Side Columnsrock-cut imitation of
wooden structure
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Another Stupa/Image Hall
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Shaivite Cave Temple at Elephanta(6th-7th CE,
near present-day Mumbai)
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entrance to the linga shrine
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Three-head Shiva (panel on side wall of cave)
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Multi-armed forms of Shiva on surrounding cave
walls
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Rock-cut Boulder Temples at Mamallapuram(mid 7th
CE, east coast of south India)
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temples named after the five brothers of the
Mahabharata epic
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MamallapuramBoulder Carving description of the
heavenly river Ganges coming down from heaven due
to the penance of an ancient sage (note the
temple, probably Vaishnavite, depicted bottom
right)
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Rock -cut Temple at Ellora(8th CE, west central
India)
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Seated Shiva at in Main Temple
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Goddesses at Ellora Lakshmi (left) Durga
(right)
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Vishnus boar incarnation (left) Shiva holding
the demon Ravana captive (right)
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scenes from the Mahabharata battle atop temple
columns
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3. Late Medieval Proliferation of Iconic Forms
Temples (8th-15th CE)
Over the next eight hundred years, Buddhist
institutions gradually disappeared from most of
India. Hindu stone temple construction and icon
sculpting, on the other hand, flourished, with a
number of important Jain temples being built as
well ( indeed often leading the way in
innovative design). These are the temples to
which most people point when speaking of Indias
religious heritage, which reflect most clearly
the influence of the medieval Purana literature.
Interestingly, though, the foundational events of
both Hindu Jain traditions had already passed
by the time these later stone temples were built
and indeed, Hindu Jain political power was in
severe decline during most of this period, as
Muslim rulers began to take over most of their
territories. Briefly sampled here are two temple
styles from the beginning of this later medieval
period.
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Southern Temple Styles later Pallava(8th CE,
predescessors of 10th CE Chola kings)
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Kalinga Dynasty(9th-11th CE, east central India)
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