China and Japan

1
China and Japan
Part V, Qing, China thru the Meiji Restoration,
Japan

• Gov/Hist 352
• Campbell University

2
Canton System

• Emperor Qianlong restricted foreign trade to the
  factory (warehouse) district of Canton. Trade was
  limited to a chartered group of 7 or 8 Chinese
  merchants, called the Cohong, who were granted a
  monopoly on foreign trade.

3
Attempts at Diplomacy

• Canton System was odious to the British and other
  trading countries. The British sent three
  embassies to Peking in an effort to negotiate
  changes
• Charles Cathcart (1787)
• George Macartney (1792-3)
• Lord Amherst (1816)
• All attempts to achieve diplomatic contact were
  rejected. A fourth attempt was made by Lord
  Napier in 1834. He died without ever being
  permitted to deliver his credentials.

4
Conflicting Views

• By the 19th Century, advances in European
  science and industry had led to great
  improvements in ship building and armament.
  Science was disdained by Chinese scholar
  officials due to its association with Daoism.
• The Napoleonic Wars left the British East India
  Company without serious competition in Asia. The
  British had conquered India and thought China
  would fall as easily.
• The Chinese thought the British were western
  maritime barbarians.

5
Conflicting Views (Contd)

• The Qing Dynasty feared that contact with
  foreigners could spark discontent and rebellion.
  The British demanded direct diplomatic
  counselor representation and unfettered trade.
• There was a great demand for things Chinese,
  porcelains, silk and especially tea. Qianlong
  asserted that China was self-sufficient and
  didnt need trade, although it hardly minded
  profiting.
• The balance of trade was heavily in favor the
  Chinese. The difference had to be made up in
  Silver.

6
Opium

• Opium was seen by the East India Company as the
  answer to the trade imbalance. It was a high
  value item which the company could grow in India.
• Opium had been traded in small quantities since
  900. In the 16th Century, trade became
  significant and by 1782, it was a major import
  item.
• The Chinese prohibited the importation of opium
  in 1729, but enforcement was lax. Smuggling was
  facilitated by bribery.
• By 1805, opium had reversed the trade imbalance.
  The surplus was 4 ½ million taels of Silver.

7
Americas Role

• The Napoleonic Wars left the U.S. as Britains
  principal maritime trade competitor in Asia.
• British trade was conducted under the umbrella of
  the East India Company. U.S. vessels were on
  their own.
• U.S. trade was less than half that of Britain,
  but both dealt in Opium. The U.S. traded Turkish
  and Persian Opium.

The Sea Witch China Tea Clipper.
8
Commissioner Lin

• Imperial Commissioner Lin Zexu was appointed in
  March 1839 to end the opium trade. He did this by
  terminating all trade until the British
  surrendered their opium and signed pledges to
  stop further smuggling.
• The Superintendent of Trade, Capt Elliott,
  ordered 21,306 chests to be delivered to Lin.

The Lin Zexu Memorial Museum, Macao, China.
9
Pretext for War

• Capt Elliott objected to individual traders
  signing pledges to stop the sale of opium as it
  undermined British jurisdiction over its
  subjects.
• In November 1839, a clash occurred between 21 war
  junks and several British warship over the
  defection of a ship whose captain had signed a
  bond and was proceeding to Canton under Chinese
  protection.
• The British stopped all trade and the Governor
  General of India declared war on January 31,
  1840.

10
First Opium War

• In June 1840, the British appeared with 16
  warships, 4 armed steamers, 27 transports and
  4,000 troops.
• Canton and the Yangtze were blockaded. A force
  proceeded to Tientsin with a letter from Prime
  Minister Palmerston.
• Manchu Prince Qishan replaced Lin and
  negotiations began in Canton.

The First Opium War lasted from 1840 to 1844
11
Treaty of Nanjing

• After a brief period of negotiations, hostilities
  resumed in 1841. British forces reaching 10,000,
  Canton was besieged and British guns threatened
  Nanjing.
• Two treaties resulted the Treaty of Nanjing
  (1842) and the Treaty of the Bogue (1843).
• China signed similar treaties with the U.S. and
  France in 1844.
• These treaties set the pattern of relations
  between the west and China for the next century.

12
Treaty Provisions

• The Cohong was abolished.
• Five ports were opened for trade Canton, Amoy,
  Foochow, Ningpo and Shanghai.
• The British could appoint consular officers at
  treaty ports.
• China was to pay an indemnity of 21 million 6
  million for the confiscated opium, 3million to
  cover debts owed by hong merchants and 12
  million to cover the cost of the war.

13
Treaty Provision (Contd)

• Letters, memos, etc., between the British and
  Chinese officials were to be called
  communications, not petitions.
• An average tariff was set at 5 for all imports
  with an individual maximum of 14.
• The Island of Hong Kong was ceded to the British
  in perpetuity.
• Treaty of the Bogue included extraterritoriality
  
• and most favored nation provisions.

14
Arrow War

• The Arrow War or Second Opium War (1856-60) was
  prompted by the seizure of the lorcha Arrow.
• The Arrow was flying a British flag used for safe
  conduct between Canton and Hong Kong. Although
  released by the Chinese, an appropriate apology
  was not given.
• The incident, together with the judicial murder
  of a priest, was considered a convenient
  opportunity for treaty revision.

15
The Conflict

• The British attacked Canton, but had to wait for
  reinforcements until the end of the Indian
  Mutiny. They captured Canton in 1857 and ruled it
  for three years.
• When British and French demands for treaty
  revision led to unsatisfactory Chinese
  representation, the British attacked the fort at
  Taku and sailed up the Peiho River to Tianjin.

The Treaty of Tienjin was negotiated and signed
in this room in a Buddhist Temple.
16
Treaty of Tienjin

• The treaty powers were granted the following
  rights plus a 6 million tael indemnity.
• To maintain resident legations in Beijing.
• To travel in all parts of the interior with
  passport.
• To trade in ten additional ports, four of which
  were on the Yangtze River..
• For missionaries to travel and anywhere in China.
• Additional negotiations in Shanghai legalized the
  opium trade and revised the tariff schedule.
• To become effective, ratified copies of the
  treaty were required to be exchanged in Beijing.

17
Entering Beijing

• The British and French attempted to sail to
  Tienjin, but found the fort reinforced and the
  river blocked.
• The fort was stormed after reinforcements arrived
  in 1860.
• An advanced party of 39 was sent to Beijing only
  to be captured and held as hostages. Twenty were
  killed. Lord Elgin burned the Summer Palace in
  reprisal.

The Manchu Bannermen fought to the death
defending the fort at Taku..
18
Convention of Beijing

• The convention was signed in 1860 following the
  entry of foreign forces into Beijing. The parties
  were Britain, France and Russia. The convention
• Ceded part of the Kowloon Peninsula and
  Stonecutters Island to the British.
• Ceded parts of outer Manchuria to Russia plus the
  Maritime Province east of the Ussuri River which
  included the warm water port of Vladivostock.
• The convention represented a major achievement of
  Russian ambitions in the Far East begun with the
  Treaty of Nerchinsk in 1689 and the Treaty of
  Aigun in 1858.

19
Chinese Opium Production

• To stem the loss of Silver, China began domestic
  production of opium after 1858.
• Importation peaked in 1879 at 6,700 tons
• By 1906, China was producing 35,000 tons (85) of
  the worlds supply and had 13.5 million addicts
  (27 of its male population).
• Major production areas were in the S.W. Szechuan
  (200,000 piculs), Yunnan (30,000 piculs) and
  Kweichow (15,000 piculs). This production
  eventually shifted to N. Burma and Thailand (the
  Triangle).

20
Taiping Rebellion (1850-64)

• At the time of the Arrow War, China was facing a
  major internal rebellion that resulted in the
  death of 20 million.
• The leader of the rebellion believed that he was
  the younger brother of Christ sent to found the
  Taiping Tianguo (The Great Peaceful Heavenly
  Dynasty).
• Hong Xiuquan was, in fact, a failed examination
  candidate.

Hong Xiuquan (1814-64)
21
Gods Chinese Son

• After failing the civil service exam for a third
  time in 1837, Hong Xiuquan became ill and
  delirious for 40 days. He saw visions to which he
  later applied a Christian interpretation.
• Hong believed that he had seen God, met Jesus and
  been given divine mission to save mankind and
  exterminate demons. Hong also believed that he
  was the source of new revelation.
• Hongs beliefs emphasized the Old Testament and
  the 10 Commandments.

22
Gods Chinese Son (contd)

• Hong became an itinerant preacher among the Hakka
  charcoal burners of Guangxi.
• The ranks of his followers quickly grew. He
  preached strict morality, including monogamy and
  the prohibition of foot binding.
• His social message included equality of men and
  women, communalism and the redistribution of land
  according to the Rites of Zhou.
• His military organization included both male and
  female units.

23
The Rebellion

• The demons that Hong sought to exterminate were
  the Manchu. The Taipings cut their queues and
  stopped shaving their foreheads to show defiance.
  
• By 1850, they were fighting government forces. In
  1853, their numbers reached over a million and
  they had taken Nanjing as their capital.
  Thereafter, momentum was lost and internal
  dissension began.
• Continued advances brought a small force of 7,000
  to within 20 miles to Tianjin before it was
  defeated. Larger forces advanced west until 1856,
  when they were defeated.

24
What Went Wrong?

• The Taipings refused to recognize the treaty
  rights of the western powers, who ostensibly
  remained neutral. The claim of new revelation
  didnt help.
• Their ideals while anti-Manchu were also
  anti-Confucian hence, considered subversive to
  the social order by the scholar-official/gentry
  class.
• Their behavior did not conform to their creed.
• Severe treatment of conquered people alienated
  the masses.
• Hong became largely a figurehead. Yang Xiuqing
  was purged along with thousands of followers.
  Hong Rengan came to prominence, but too late.

25
Zeng Guofan and the Xiang Army

• Government forces had been far from effective
  against the Taiping.
• Zeng, a scholar-official, conceived of a new
  model army while visiting Hunan for his mothers
  funeral in 1851. He stayed to build a regional
  militia based on Confucian values. His militia
  successfully fought Taiping forces and retook
  Nanjing.
• His success inspired Li Hongzhangs Anhui Army
  and Zuo Zongtangs Chu Army.

Zeng Guofan (1811-72)
26
The Ever Victorious Army

• Frederick Townsend Ward was an American
  adventurer. He founded the Ever Victorious Army
  in Shanghai in response to recurring Taiping
  threats to the city.
• Wards initial concept was to use western
  mercenaries. However, experience soon led him to
  develop a highly disciplined and effective
  Chinese militia led by western officers.
• He died in battle in 1862.

Frederick Townsend Ward
27
Chinese Gordon

• Charles George Chinese Gordon was a British
  officer appointed to succeeded Ward at the
  request of Li Hongzhang.
• A second mercenary army operated with Lis
  forces, the Ever Triumphant Army. It was composed
  of Chinese and Filipinos led by French officers.
• When the British withdrew their officers from
  Chinese service, the French continued their
  support.

Charles George Gordon
28
Other Rebellions

• The Nian and Muslim rebellions caused the death
  of 70 million.
• The Nian Rebellion (1851-68)
• Took place in Shantung, Anhui and Henan
  Provinces.
• Fed on the discontent left by the White Lotus
  Rebellion and the misery of the Yellow River
  flooding.
• Was suppressed through steady attrition by Li
  Hongzhangs Anhui Army.

Li Hongzhang (1823-1901)
29
Other Rebellions (Contd)

• Muslim Rebellion (1855-73)
• There were about a million Muslims living in
  Gansu, Shaanxi and Yunnan.
• Heavy taxes, desperate poverty and conflicts with
  the Chinese led to riots and then rebellion in
  Yunnan in 1855. Rebellion broke out in the north
  in 1862 fomented by conflict with Chinese and
  Taiping and Nian raids.
• Zuo Zongtang supressed the rebellion in the north
  in a three-year long campaign targeted against
  the strongest rebels. His advisers were Lin Zexu
  and Lins secretary.

Zou Zongtang (1812-1885)
30
The Tongzhi Restoration

• Emperor Xianfeng died in Machuria in 1861 after
  fleeing the western forces that took Beijing in
  1860. He left only one heir, five year old
  Tongzhi.
• Tongzhis principal regents were his mother,
  Empress Cizi and his uncle, Prince Gong.
• Prince Gong assumed responsibility for foreign
  affairs and established the Zongli Yamen under
  the Grand Council.
• Thru the Zongli Yamen, he began modernization of
  China to meet the foreign challenge.

Emperor Tongzhi (1856-1875)
31
The Self-Strengthening Movement

• Zeng Guofan, Li Hongzhang, and Zuo Zongtang were
  all actively involved in the Self-Strengthening
  Movement.
• The goal was to deal with Chinas deficiencies
  by
• Studying science, international law and foreign
  languages.
• Establishing arsenals and shipyards in Shanghai,
  Canton and Fuchou.
• Conducting relief projects in the Yangtze River
  basin.
• Reforming the civil service exam system and local
  government.

Prince Gong (1833-1898)
32
Self-Strengthening Philosophy

• Many in Qing government and Chinese society were
  concerned over the subversive impact of Western
  science and technology.
• The principal argument for learning from the west
  was that barbarian techniques were appropriate
  against barbarians. Western techniques would be
  used to protect Chinese civilization.
• The ability to separate function from
  substance was understandably doubted by many.

33
Chinese Foreign Cooperation

• The Maritime Customs Service was an example of
  cooperation between China and the foreign powers.
  Under Robert Hart (1863 1908), the customs
  service became a modern, administrative arm of
  the Qing government that substantially funded the
  reform effort.
• Cooperation with the west also produced the first
  Chinese diplomatic mission to the West which was
  headed by the retiring American minister. Anson
  Burlingame in 1867.

34
Chinas First Diplomatic Mission

• Burlingame, who was retiring as U.S. minister to
  China, was appointed by the Chinese to lead a
  diplomatic mission on their behalf to America and
  the principal European nations.
• The objective was to conclude treaties of amity.
• He was accompanied by two Chinese ministers and
  six Chinese students.
• Burlingame died in St. Petersburg in 1870.

Anson Burlingame (1820-1870)
35
Empress Dowager Cixi

• Cixis rule as regent from behind the curtain
  was symbolic of the problems faced by China.
• She was committed to maintaining power.
• She manipulated the succession of three child
  emperors.
• She and those around her were totally
  corrupt,e.g., building the marble pavilion with
  funds intended for the navy.
• Nevertheless, provincial governors such as Li
  Hongzhang remained loyal to the dynasty.

Cixi (1835-1908)
36
Education

• Education was recognized as the key to
  modernization. Attempts both overseas and at home
  were disappointing.
• Between 1872 and 1881, 120 students were sent to
  the US. They quickly adopted American attitudes
  and customs in spite of Confucian supervision and
  were considered alienated from their own culture.
• At home, schools were established in foreign
  languages, telegraphy, medicine, mining and other
  modern subjects, but mastery of these fields was
  not recognized in the civil service exam system.
  Degrees were only granted by passing traditional
  exams.

37
Economic Self-Strengthening

• The policy of government supervision and
  merchant operation was applied to new
  enterprises. Li Hongzhangs China Merchants Steam
  Navigation Company is an example.
• The capital was a combination of private and
  public.
• The government granted a monopoly on the
  transportation of tax grain plus tariff
  concessions.
• The company became Lis cash cow.
• Sinecures were provided for political supporters.
• Funds were diverted to buy warships and make
  loans to the Korean government.
• Ships were used to transport troops.

38
Missionary Efforts

• Missionaries were seen by the bulk of Chinese as
  an extension of western imperialism. Suspicion
  and hostility led to events such as the Tianjin
  massacre.
• Protestant missionaries such as W.A.P Martin,
  Robert Morrison and James Legge plus numerous
  medical missionaries spread western knowledge and
  served as cultural intermediaries.
• The number of Protestant converts by 1890 was
  only 37,000, the product of 1300 missionaries.
  There about 160,000 native Catholics.

39
Sino-French War (1884-85)

• France had carved out a colonial empire in
  Indo-China between 1859 and 1882.
• China intervened in 1882 over the seizure of
  Hanoi. The war was fought in Vietnam, on Taiwan
  and along the Chinese coast. The Fuzhou dockyards
  and fleet built there were destroyed.
• China was forced to surrender suzerainty over
  Vietnam, acknowledge a French protectorate of
  Laos (1886), cede Macao to Portugal (1887) and
  recognize the British conquest of Burma (1890s)
  .

40
The Opening of Japan

• On July 8, 1853, Commodore Matthew C. Perry (USN)
  entered Edo Bay with his black ships to demand
  that Japan open its ports to the U.S.
• Under the Tokugawa Shogunate, Japan had enforced
  a policy of near total isolation for almost 250
  years.
• The bakufu was thrown into a panic. Its inability
  to expel the foreigners brought its legitimacy
  into question.

Matthew C. Perry (1794-1858)
41
U.S. Objectives

• Commodore Perrys task was to present a letter
  from President Millard Fillmore to the Emperor of
  Japan. It was signed, Your Good Friend, Millard
  Fillmore.
• America sought
• A coaling station on the great circle route to
  China at which provisions could be obtained.
• Assurance of good treatment for shipwrecked
  sailors.
• Trade.

42
Japanese Response

• The Japanese were awed by the speed and size of
  Perrys ships.
• The Japanese made an unsuccessful attempt to
  intercept Perrys ships as they entered Edo Bay.
• The large amounts of black smoke led some
  Japanese to think that Perrys ships were on
  fire.
• The letter was delivered to representatives of
  the bakufu at a hostile but correct meeting. The
  letter was to be transmitted to the Emperor.
  Perry would return in the Spring for an answer.
• Perrys delegation returned to their ships with a
  small Marine band playing Yankee Doodle.

43
Treaty of Kanagawa

• Perry returned in February of 1854 with eight
  ships. The bakufu decided it had little choice
  but to follow a conciliatory policy.
• The Treaty of Kanagawa
• Opened two ports for provisioning American ships,
  Shimoda and Hakodate.
• Provided for humane treatment shipwrecked
  sailors.
• Established counselor but not commercial
  relations.
• Townsend Harris was chosen to negotiate a
  separate commercial treaty. He arrived in 1856.

44
The Harris Commercial Treaty

• Harris and his Dutch interpreter were the sole
  foreign residents in Shimoda. The interpreter,
  Henry Heusken, was killed by an irate Samurai.
• Although ill, Harris persisted and in 1858
  produced the treaty which included all the
  standard provisions extra-territoriality, tariff
  limitations, most favored nation status and
  additional ports.
• He was rewarded with a cow and a female servant,
  Okichi.

Townsend Harris
45
1860 Japanese Embassy to U.S.

• Ratification of the Harris Commercial Treaty was
  to take place in the U.S. An ambassador and 170
  samurai made the trip.
• They were celebrities, feted with a parade down
  Broadway in N.Y.
• A high point of the visit was a meeting with
  President James Buchanan.

Studio photo of members of Japanese embassy to
the U.S.
46
Meiji Restoration

• The opening of Japan precipitated a crises which
  eventually led to the fall of the shogunate and
  the restoration of imperial power in 1868.
• Two outside han led the sonno-joi movement,
  Satsuma and Chosu, collectively known as
  Satcho.
• Iwakura Tonomi, a court noble, encouraged Satcho
  samurai to see the merits of imperial
  restoration.

Emperor Meiji (1852-1912)
47
The Mito School

• Tokugawa Nariaki (Lord of Mito) furthered the
  restoration by
• Successfully backing his own son for shogun by
  appealing to the emperor.
• Sponsoring an academy supportive of emperor based
  historiography under Yoshida Shoin. Among the
  students were Kido Koin, Ito Hirobumi and
  Yamagata Aritomo, all of whom played major roles
  in the restoration.
• Yoshida was beheaded when he attempted to
  assassinate envoys sent to gain the emperors
  consent to the Harris Commercial Treaty.

Tokugawa Nariaki (1800-60)
48
Chosu Wars (1864-65 1866)

• Chosus blatant hostility toward treaty powers
  placed the han in rebellion. The bakufu raised a
  military force and defeated Chosu in 1865.
• Chosu modernized it forces, introducing mixed
  samurai-peasant rifle regiments, and defeated the
  bakufu in 1866. (Satsuma remained neutral.)
• Defeat by a single han, undermined the authority
  of the bakufu. It unsuccessfully sought to form
  coalition with other daimyo.
• On January 3, 1868, Satsuma led several han in
  seizing Kyoto and custody of the emperor.

49
New Leadership

• Backers of the sonno-joi movement now had an
  opportunity to lead the nation. Among them were
• Okubo Toshimichi of Satsumo. A strong
  personality.
• Kido Koin of Chosu. Benefited from his father
  being a Dutch scholar and an early student of
  medical science.
• Saigo Takamori of Satsuma. Physically imposing, a
  man of traditional samurai bearing. He was the
  inspiration for the movie, Last Samurai.
• Their first steps were to move the emperor into
  the shoguns palace in Edo (1869) and frame the
  Charter Oath (1868).

50
The Charter Oath

• The oath was issued in the emperors name its
  principal drafter was Kido Koin. The Oath
• Matters of state will be decided thru a widely
  convoked public assembly and public discussion.
• All classes will unite to promote the economy and
  welfare of the nation.
• All civil and military officials and the common
  people will be allowed to fulfill their
  aspirations.
• Base customs will be replaced by principles of
  international justice.
• Knowledge shall be sought throughout the world to
  strengthen the foundation of the imperial polity.

51
Dismantling Feudalism

• Kido Koin and Ito Hirobumi took the lead in
  dismantling the old system.
• Return of Domains.
• In 1869, Chosu and Satsuma returned their hans to
  the emperor. Other hans followed. The daimyo were
  then appointed governors. In 1871, the return of
  all hans was decreed by Tokyo.
• The daimyo received lucrative financial
  settlements, but the samurai lost their status as
  hereditary elite.
• Economic barriers were removed and a single
  national entity of 75 prefectures emerged.

52
Dismantling Feudalism (Contd)

• Creation of a National Army.
• In 1862, Yamagata Aritomo established a conscript
  army. All young men were liable for 3 years
  active and 4 years reserve service, regardless of
  origin.
• The distinction between samurai and common men
  was lost. A system of social engineering was
  created to educate the masses to emperor centered
  nationalism.
• Occupations were opened to all and last names
  were taken by the peasants.

53
Dismantling Feudalism (Contd)

• Eliminated the Wearing of Swords.
• In 1871, the wearing of two swords by samurai was
  made optional. In 1876, it was prohibited.
• The government assumed responsibility to provide
  stipends to samurai, but later commuted them to
  lump sum payments equal to one years salary.
• The dissolution of the samurai class caused great
  unrest and prompted Saigo Takamori to resign from
  the government to lead the Satsuma rebellion in
  1877. The rebellion failed and he committed
  seppuku.

Statue of Saigo Takamori in Kagoshima
54
Iwakura Mission

• Members of the mission Iwakura Tonomi,
  plenipotentiary and ambassador (center), Kido
  Koin, Ito Hirobumi and Okubo Toshmichi, vice
  ambassadors (left to right) .

55
Iwakura Mission Objectives

• The two year mission left in 1871. The 48 members
  plus 60 students toured the world and the west in
  particular with two objectives
• To renegotiate unequal treaties signed with the
  west. In this, they completely failed.
• To gain knowledge to be used in the modernization
  of Japan. In this, they achieved great success.
  The impact of the trip was almost immediately
  felt.
• The members examined everything from iron
  foundries to stock exchanges and prisons to
  telegraph offices.

56
Modernization of the Military

• Models were sought and followed.
• The Army A French model was first used, but
  later changed to the German model. Most ranking
  officers were from Chosu.
• The Navy The British model was followed. Most
  ranking officers were from Satsuma.
• Initially, success was allusive.
• The Formosa Expedition of 1874 proved a disaster.
• Satsuma Rebellion of 1877, the government only
  won thru the weight of superior numbers and
  resources.
• Sino-Japanese War of 1894, Japan easily won.
• Russo- Japanese War of 1904, Japan easily won.

57
Education

• Education was another area of early emphasis and
  borrowing.
• Professor David Murray of Rutgers University was
  appointed superintendent of Schools and Colleges.
  He founded the Japanese education system.
• Many students were sent abroad for education. One
  of them, Mori Arinori, studied physics in England
  and at the age of 25 became Japans first envoy
  to the U.S. In 1886, he became Japan's Minister
  of Education.
• Kaneko Kentaro came to the U.S. with the Iwakura
  Mission to attend Harvard where he was a
  classmate of Theodore Roosevelt. He later
  influenced him to mediate the settlement of
  Russo-Japanese War.

58
Education (Contd)

• In spite of a few missteps, by 1902 Japan could
  boast
• Two Universities.
• 222 intermediate schools.
• 27, 076 elementary schools.
• Of all the things the Japanese learned from
  America, baseball was the most fascinating. A
  missionary, Horace Wilson, taught the game to
  students at Tokyo University in 1873. In 1896,
  the Japanese beat the American Athletic Club of
  Yokahama 29 to 4.

59
The Economy

• To industrialize the country, an infrastructure
  of transportation and communication was needed.
• The British were hired to introduce the
  telegraph. In 1896, Tokyo and Yokohama were
  linked. Within 10 years, a national network was
  in place.
• Maejima Hisoka, a former samurai, introduced the
  postal system to Japan in 1871 using a British
  model. By 1880, 76 thousand kilometers of postal
  routes were operated at a profit. By 1900, a
  billion items a year were being carried.

60
The Economy (Contd)

• A major investment was made in railroads. The
  first line was between Tokyo and Yokohama in
  1872. By the mid 1890s, there were 2,000 miles
  of track.
• The government took the lead in many areas
  cement, glass, tiles, textiles, shipyards, mines,
  munitions, etc. The objective was to demonstrate
  profitability, privatize and subsidize, if
  necessary. The Zaibatsu (conglomerates) resulted.
• The Japan Steamship Company is an example of this
  philosophy in action. The government backed a
  poor samurai with a couple of ships in 1873. By
  1879, he had beat out the foreign competition.
  The company became the foundation of Mitsubishi
  and Mitsui.

61
The Meiji Constitution

• Ito Hirobumi drafted of the Meiji Constitution
  along German lines after two years study in
  Europe.
• The constitution was promulgated in 1889 as a
  gift from the emperor.
• The emperor retained sole authority to declare
  war, conclude treaties, command military forces,
  open and close the legislature, veto decision of
  the legislature and issue ordinances independent
  of the legislature.
• The cabinet was responsible to the emperor, not
  the legislature.

Ito Hirobumi (1841-1909)
62
The Diet

• The Diet (legislature) was composed of a House of
  Representatives and a House of Peers. The peers
  were retired daimyo.
• The representatives were elected by tax paying
  property owners (1.1 of the population). It
  could set budgets and taxes, but if deadlocked,
  the previous years budget would be followed.
• The first election produced a victory for
  non-government parties. A battle of the budget
  occurred each year until the Sino-Japanese War.

63
The Cabinet

• The single greatest weakness of the Meiji
  Constitution was the cabinet system. The military
  was represented by active duty officers.
• If either the army or navy became dissatisfied
  with the cabinet, it could simply withdraw its
  representative. When this happened, a new
  cabinet had to be formed.
• The traditional role of the emperor was passive.
  He seldom expressed an opinion and when he did,
  it was in the vaguest of terms.

64
End Part V

• Kabuki began in 1603, when Okuni, a miko
  (young woman in the service of a Shinto shrine)
  began performing a new dance drama. Female
  performers played both men and women in short
  comic plays about ordinary life.