Chapter 13 Cooper Chapter 17 SulzerAzaroff

1
Chapter 13 (Cooper)Chapter 17 (Sulzer-Azaroff)

• Prompting

2
Effective Goal Setting

• Be realistic
• Shape
• Goals should be SDs

3
Prompting and Prompt Fading

• Prompts
• supplemental stimuli that control the target
  response but are not a part of the natural SD
  that will eventually control the behavior
• (Touchette Howard, 1984)
• Prompts are given before or during the
  performance of a behavior they help behavior
  occur so that the teacher can provide
  reinforcement
• Only introduced during the acquisition phase of
  instruction
• Prompt Fading
• technique to gradually change the antecedent
  stimulus Stimuli are faded in or out.
• Transfer of Stimulus Control
• technique used to fade response and stimulus
  prompts

4
2 Types of Prompts

• Response Prompts stimuli added to a childs
  response
• Verbal Directions
• Modeling
• Physical Guidance
• Stimulus Prompts Stimuli used in conjunction
  with the task stimuli or instructional materials
• Movement Cues
• Position Cues
• Redundancy Cues

5
Response prompts stimuli added to a childs
response

• Verbal directions
• can be one word or several in length and are
• used very often in typical classrooms
• e.g., When teaching a child to tie a shoe can
  say remember to make the bows big
• e.g., remind the student what they need to do
  Remember do your math worksheet and then we can
  go to the party
• but can be used with children with autism
• Child must have responding that is rule-governed
  or use familiar language
• Make sure they are not prompts but critical
  variables of concern
• E.g., instructions can be taught to response to
  these pair with modeling

6
Response prompts stimuli added to a childs
response

• Modeling prompts
• a behavior can be modeled by demonstrating the
  desired behavior so that it can be imitated. It
  can be used in combination with other prompts
• Child must have genrealized imitation
• e.g., words on a card to be copied writing
  activity schedules
• e.g., videotaping the actions of a play script
• e.g., drawing the components for an art script
• E.g., posture and attention

7
Response prompts stimuli added to a childs
response

• Physical guidance
• an instructor manually guides a child through the
  entire target response
• e.g., teaching a child to dress not pulling the
  pants up for a child but putting your hands over
  the childs and guiding them pull them up

8
Ways to Fade Response PromptsWolery and Gast
(1984)

• Most-to-Least Prompts
• Graduated Guidance
• Shadowing and spatial fading
• Least-to-Most Prompts
• Time Delay

9
Response Prompt Fading

• Most-to-least
• the instructor initially guides the student
  physically through the entire performance then
  gradually reduces the amount of physical
  assistance provided as training progresses from
  session to session.
• e.g., dressing
• Graduated guidance
• is defined as the teacher provides a physical
  prompt only when it is needed and then it is
  faded immediately whenever the student responses
  correctly.

10
Response Prompt Fading

• Foxx and Azrin (1973) recommend using shadowing
  and spatial fading with the graduated guidance
  procedure as soon as the student is performing
  the skill independently.
• Shadowing
• has the teacher following the students
  movements with her hands very near but not
  touching the child. The teacher then gradually
  increases the distance of her hands from the
  student.
• Spatial fading
• involves gradually changing the location of the
  physical prompt.
• e.g., if the physical prompt is used for a hand
  movement, the teacher can move the prompt from
  the hand to the wrist, to the elbow, to the
  shoulder, and then to no physical contact.

11
Response Prompt Fading

• Least to most prompts
• involves giving the student the opportunity to
  perform the response with the least amount of
  assistance on each trial. Greater degrees of
  assistance are provided as successive
  opportunities are required.
• This procedure requires that a latency interval
  (frequency 5 seconds) occur between the
  presentation of the natural SD and the
  opportunity to emit the response.

12
Least-to Most

• Wolery and Gast (1984) List 4 basic Guidelines to
  be followed
• The natural SD to which stimulus control will be
  transferred is presented at each prompt level
• a constant latency interval follows the
  presentation of each natural SD or prompt within
  which time the student has an opportunity to
  response without additional assistance
• Increased assistance is presented at each prompt
  level
• Each correct response is positive reinforced even
  if prompted
• Advantages
• the student always has an opportunity to response
  and the students behavior determines the level
  of prompting needed for a correct response
  increasing assistance as necessary.
• Disadvantages
• multiple errors.

13
Example

• e.g., Joe point to the number 8
• no response
• Joe point to the number 8. Its the one between
  7 and 9 on your
• number line.
• No response
• Joe want me point to the number 8 on your paper.
  Now you point
• to the number 8.
• He points to the 9
• Join point to the number 8. The tutor placed
  his hand on top of Joes and moves his hand close
  to the number 8
• He points to 9
• Joe, point to the number 8. The tutor guides
  Joes fingers to the
• number 8

14
Response Prompt Fading

• Time delay
• delays the presentation of the prompt after the
  natural stimulus has been presented.
• Snell and Gast (1981) describe two time delay
  procedures
• Progressive time delay
• starts with a zero time delay between the
  presentation of the natural stimulus and the
  response prompt. The time delay is then gradually
  and systematically increased usually in 1-second
  intervals. The time delay can be increased after
  a specific number of presentation after each
  session or after a specific number of sessions.
• Constant time delay
• begins with several trials using a zero second
  delay. Then for all other trials the response
  prompt is delayed for a fixed time interval after
  the presentation of the natural stumbles.

15
Stimulus prompts stimuli added to an SD prior
to a child emitting a response.

• Movement prompts
• pointing to or looking at the target stimulus.
• e.g. when teaching a student to discriminate a
  penny from a dime you might point to correct
  coin.
• Positional prompts
• moving the target stimulus closer to a child.
• e.g., if asking for a dime move it closer
• Redundancy prompts
• when additional dimensions (e.g., color, size
  shape) of the target stimulus are exaggerated.
• e.g. prompt is exaggerating the lettering on a
  dime criterion related
• e.g., placing the correct coin on a white sheet
  of paper non-criterion related

16
Fading Stimulus Prompts

• Stimulus prompts are typically faded through
  errorless learning procedures such as stimulus
  shaping, transposition, and stimulus fading
  (LaBlanc Etzel, 1981)

17
Fading Stimulus Prompts

• -Stimulus fading
• highlighting a physical dimension (e.g., color,
  size, position) of a stimulus to increase the
  likelihood of a correct response.
• The highlighted or exaggerated dimension is faded
  gradually in or out.
• e.g., fully highlighting a letter A to teach
  handwriting criterion related prompt
• e.g., 17 and 71 in puzzles give them a one and
  have them place the one in the correct position
  to make 17 or 71 eventually fade this to a
  writing task
• criterion related prompts ensure that the child
  is attending to the relevant dimension of the
  stimulus.

18
Fading Stimulus Prompts

• Superimposition of stimuli is
• Frequently used with stimulus fading.
• Two specific classes of stimuli are presented to
  prompt a response.
• In one instance the transfer of stimulus control
  occurs when one stimulus is faded out in another
  application one stimulus is faded in as the other
  stimulus is faded out.

19
Fading Stimulus Prompts

• E.g. Terrace (1963)
• colored lights (red green)
• Lines superimposed on lights
• Lights faded out
• e.g., 5 2 7
• 1-2-3-4-5- 6-7
• E.g., Pg 320 criterion related?

20
Fading Stimulus Prompts

• -Stimulus shaping occurs when the overall
  configuration or topography of the stimulus is
  changed.
• e.g., picture of a car gradually changing to the
  written word car criterion related

21
Discriminative Motivational Functions of Stimuli

• To demonstrate stimulus control
• A response characteristic such as probability of
  occurrence is altered whenever a change is made
  in a particular property of an antecedent
  stimulus
• A response in the presence of an antecedent
  stimulus is followed with reinforcement

22
Discriminative Motivational Functions of Stimuli

• To demonstrate stimulus control
• 3. The SD condition is correlated with an
  increased frequency of reinforcement as opposed
  to the S
• -differential reinforcement is critical!
• -Sometimes, a stimulus change alters the rate of
  probability of a response occurrence and appears
  to have an SD effect without any history of
  effective differential reinforcement correlated
• deprivation and satiation states
• Michael uses the terms establishing operations
  and establishing stimuli to distinguish the
  discriminative and motivational function of
  stimulus

23
Contextual Variables

• Setting Events
• Establishing Operations
• Establishing Stimulus

24
Setting Events

• Setting Events (Conditional Discrimination)
• the presence or absence of an SD that alters the
  function of any other SD in a general way
• SD Context Movie Theatre
• S ? R ? SR
• See Minimal Avoid
• friends Conversation Complaints

25
Setting Events

• Setting events acquire their function through a
  history of differential reinforcement, just as
  any other sort of discriminative stimulus does.
• Examples of contextual stimuli related to
  classroom performance
• E.g., faster rates of presentations of
  instructional stimuli are associated with both
  lower rates of disruption and higher rates of
  correct responses that are slower-paced
  presentations.
• So too are frequent praise, clear signals,
  consistency within a setting, and immediate
  feedback.

26
Establishing Operations

• Any change in the environment which alters the
  effectiveness of some object or event as
  reinforcement and simultaneously alters the
  momentary frequency of the behavior that has been
  followed by that reinforcer.
• E.g., salt ingestion, perspiration and blood loss
  are establishing operations for water consumption
• Others?
• Note that establishing operations resemble events
  that other learning theorists might have labeled
  drives or motivational variables.

27
Establishing Operations

• A history of differential reinforcement is much
  less relevant with establishing operations than
  with setting events.
• Establishing operations is less dependent on
  learning than setting events
• e.g, first time a bay is nauseated he or she will
  refuse food. The b aby does not have to have
  learned previously that eating will be punished.
• Establishing operations is not the same as a
  discriminative stimulus and does not obtain it
  controlling properties in the same way.

28
Establishing Stimulus

• The effectiveness of conditioned reinforcement is
  altered but not the effectiveness of
  unconditioned reinforcement
• If there is an increased likelihood of the
  occurrence of behavior that in the past has
  produced the conditioned reinforcement associated
  with the second stimulus change

29
Establishing Stimulus

• Michael (1982) describes an establishing stimulus
  as a form of conditioning that produces an
  evocative relation similar to that of an
  establishing operation.
• That is an antecendent-response relation between
  when you find yourself desperately seeking or
  needing an item or event, person, tool, or
  different environment and when you respond
  according to your prior experiences
• A response cannot occur unless some stimulus
  change enables it to happen
• E.g., you cannot drive your car unless you have
  the key, but you have misplaced it. So you look
  in all the familiar places until you find it.
  Locating the key is a conditioned reinforcing
  event, whereas hunting for it was evoked by the
  stimulus event no key.

30
Differences?

• An establishing operation alters the
  effectiveness of reinforcement for all members of
  a species. Not affected by individual history
• E.g., water deprivation for humans
• An establishing stimulus does depend on
  individual history in altering the effectiveness
  of reinforcement. Does not effect all members of
  the species in the same way
• E.g., teacher tell student to complete math
  worksheet 4. One student lost his worksheet so
  asks the teacher for another copy
• Student cannot complete worksheet and then
  receive reinforcement, if does not have a
  worksheet. Establishing Stimuli are the worksheet
  and thus asking the teacher for a worksheet
  worksheet then becomes conditioned reinforcer
  because completion of it leads to reinforcement.

31
Questions to answer when selecting a prompt

• What is the target response?
• Does my prompt lead to the target response?
• What is the natural stimuli that should control
  this behavior?
• Does my prompt lead to that stimuli controlling
  the behavior?
• Order your SDs in a hierarchy from the most
  natural to the most artificial and select from
  there
• E.g. eye contact why you wouldnt say look or
  hands down
• E.g., teaching a student to discriminate b and
  d
• Extra stimlus prompt-non-criterion related
  prompts
• Within-stimulus prompts criterion related
  prompts magnified critical features

32
Information to remember when fading prompts

• Am I producing a shift in attention from my
  prompt to the relevant discriminative stimuli?
• Am I decreasing the likelihood of prompt
  dependency while preventing errors?
• -e.g., fading prompts in a timely fashion
• Am I using an error-correction procedure if the
  child makes a mistake?
• Am I reinforcing only when I reduce my level of
  prompt giving the child an incentive to
  independently perform the response?

33
Coping with Stimulus overdependence and
overselectivity

• Children with autisms behavior may be controlled
  by a limited number of even just one often
  non-relevant stimulus -of the complex stimulus
• E.g., placement of an object, its color, person
  doing the teaching
• Can recall someones name when they are sitting
  in their seat in the classroom pass them on the
  street and Im in trouble
• How do you fix this?

34
Correcting Overselectivity

• Control has to be transferred over to the
  critical features of the SD
• Alternate trials involving single components of
  the complex stimulus with trials containing the
  intact complex stimulus
• Use intermittent schedules of reinforcement may
  promote attending