Outdoor and Indoor Air Pollution

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Outdoor and Indoor Air Pollution

• Patrick L. Kinney, Sc.D.
• Associate Professor
• Columbia University
• plk3_at_columbia.edu

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Overview

• The natural atmosphere
• Outdoor pollutants and their sources
• Indoor air pollution
• Health effects of air pollution
• Measurement of particle pollution
• Climate change

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Vertical structure of the atmosphere
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Troposphere

• Lowest 10 km of atmosphere
• Contains 75 of the atmospheric mass
• The layer in which most weather phenomena occur,
  e.g., frontal passage, storms, winds
• The layer in which most air pollution problems
  occur
• Energy balance is key factor

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Distribution of incoming solar radiation
30 reflected back to space
About half absorbed by surface
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Air set in motion by

• Absorption of energy at surface followed by
  transfer of heat to lowest layer of air
• Heated parcels become buoyant relative to nearby
  cooler parcels, thereby rising
• Rising of air parcel leaves lower pressure at
  surface
• Dense, cool air moves towards the area of low
  pressure
• Pressure gradient force drives winds

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As a warm parcel rises, it expands and cools,
resulting in the normal lapse rate ( 6.5
ºC/km) of troposphere depicted here.
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When the temperature lapse rate becomes
inverted near the surface in urban areas, high
pollution levels are likely to result
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A Typical Morning in Denver, Colorado
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Worst Case Inversion in a Valley
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Air Pollutants of Human Health Concern

• Carbon monoxide
• Sulfur dioxide
• Nitrogen dioxide
• Volatile organics
• Ozone
• Particulate matter
• Sulfates, nitrates, organics, elemental carbon,
  lead and other metals

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Carbon Monoxide - CO

• Colorless, odorless gas
• Primary pollutant, emitted by incomplete
  combustion of biomass or fossil fuels
• Binds strongly with hemoglobin, displacing oxygen
• Emissions reduction by higher temperature
  combustion and use of catalytic converters on
  motor vehicles

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Sulfur Dioxide SO2

• Primary pollutant, emitted by combustion of fuels
  containing sulfur also metal smelting
• Irritates upper respiratory tract
• Converted in atmosphere to acid sulfates
• Emissions reductions by building taller smoke
  stacks, installing scrubbers, or by reducing
  sulfur content of fuel being burned

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Acid Precipitation Formation
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Nitrogen Dioxide NO2

• Formed by oxidation of NO, which is produced with
  high temperature combustion (NO2 is a secondary
  pollutant)
• Oxidant that can irritate the lungs and hinder
  host defense
• A key precursor of ozone formation
• Emissions reductions by engine redesign and use
  of catalytic converters

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Volatile Organic Compounds VOCs

• Products of incomplete combustion, evaporation of
  liquid fuels, atmospheric reactions, and release
  from vegetation (both primary and secondary)
• Wide range of compounds with varying health
  effects
• Another key ozone precursor
• Emissions reductions by high temperature
  combustion and control of evaporation, e.g.,
  during refueling of cars

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Ozone O3

• Secondary pollutant, formed via photochemical
  reactions in the atmosphere from NOx and VOC in
  the presence of sunlight
• Strong oxidant that damages cells lining the
  respiratory system
• Concentrations often highest downwind of source
  regions
• Emissions reductions by control of NOx and VOC
  emissions, especially from motor vehicles

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Mechanisms of Ozone Formation
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Regional Air Pollution Mechanisms e.g., Ozone
and Acid Precipitation
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Particulate Matter - PM

• Products of combustion, atmospheric reactions,
  and mechanical processes
• Wide range of particle sizes
• Wide range of physical/chemical properties
• Wide range of health impacts, including premature
  death
• Control by filtration, electrostatic
  precipitation, and reduction of precursor gases

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Distribution of particle mass at various particle
diameters for a typical urban air sample
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Particle size distributions differ in urban and
rural areas
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Particle deposition in the respiratory system is
a strong function of particle diameter
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Motor Vehicles represent a major source category
for several air pollutants (CO, NO2, VOCs, O3, PM)
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Figure 3.2 Trends in estimated U.S. Lead
Emissions
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Figure 3.3 Trends in U.S. Ambient Lead
Concentrations
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Indoor Air Pollution

• Combustion is principal source cooking, smoking,
  heating
• Dilution and dispersion are limited, especially
  nearest the source
• Pollutants of greatest importance include CO,
  NO2, PM, VOCs
• Indoor concentrations often far higher than
  outdoors, even in urban areas
• Those who spend the most time indoors near the
  source will be most impacted

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The most local form of air pollution indoor
combustion of biomass in India
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About half the world s households use
unprocessed solid fuels for cooking,ranging
roughly from near zero in developed countries to
more than 80in China,India,and Sub-Saharan
Africa (Holdren et al.,2000). In simple
small-scale devices,such as household cookstoves,
solid fuels have rather large emission rates of a
number of important health-damaging airborne
pollutants including respirable
particulates,CO,dozens of PAHs and toxic
hydrocarbons,and, depending on combustion and
fuel characteristics, nitrogen and sulfur
oxides. A large,although uncertain,fraction of
such stoves are not vented,i.e.do not have flues
or hoods to take the pollutants out of the living
area. Even when vented to the outdoors,unprocesse
d solid fuels produce enough pollution to
significantly affect local pollution levels with
implications for total exposures (Smith et
al.,1994).As cookstoves are essentially used
everyday at times when people are present,their
exposure effectiveness (or intake fraction)is
high,i.e.the percentage of their emissions that
reach people s breathing zones, is much higher
than for outdoor sources(Smith, 2002 Bennett et
al.,2002). The individual peak and mean
exposures experienced in such settings are large
by comparison with WHO guidelines and national
standards. From Kirk Smith, Indoor Air
200212198 .207
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For comparison US annual PM2.5 standard is 15
ug/m3
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Table 4.3. Indoor particle air pollution from
biomass combustion in developing countries
partial list of studies of individual breathing
area concentrations (women during cooking, unless
otherwise stated) (Smith 1996).
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Albalak R. et al., Environ. Sci. Technol. 2001,
35, 2650-2655
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Health Effects of Air Pollution

• Historical experience provides strong evidence
  for causal relationship between air pollution and
  premature death
• Modern epidemiology studies have consistently
  found significant associations
• Two primary epidemiologic study designs
• Time series studies of acute effects
• Cohort or cross-section studies of chronic
  effects
• Lets look at the evidence for particle health
  effects

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London Killer Fog, December, 1952
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London Mid-day in December 1952
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Air Pollution Epidemiology

• Provides most directly relevant results for
  policy makers
• Assesses effects of real mix of pollutants on
  human populations
• Pollutants tend to co-vary, making it hard to
  distinguish effects
• Can demonstrate associations between outcome and
  exposure, but not cause and effect
• Must control for confounding factors
• Exposure assessment is ecologic

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Time Series Epidemiology

• Addresses effects in narrow time window
• Involves multiple regression analysis of long
  series of daily observations
• Large number of studies have reported significant
  associations between daily deaths and/or hospital
  visit counts and daily average air pollution.
• Time series design avoids spatial confounding
  however, temporal confounding due to seasons and
  weather must be addressed.
• Particles often appear most important, but CO,
  SO2, NO2, and/or ozone may also play roles.
• For example, NMMAPS Study

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Cohort Epidemiology

• Address long-term exposure-response window
• Large populations in multiple cities enrolled and
  then followed for many years to determine
  mortality experience
• Cox proportional hazards modeling to determine
  associations with pollution exposure
• Must control for spatial confounders, e.g.,
  smoking, income, race, diet, occupation
• Assessment of confounders at individual level is
  an advantage over cross-sectional, ecologic
  studies

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Pope, C.A. et al., Journal of the American
Medical Association 287, 1132-1141, 2002
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Pope, C.A., et al.,
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Conclusion

• Long-term exposure to combustion-related fine
  particle air pollution is an important
  environmental risk factor for cardiopulmonary and
  lung cancer mortality.

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Human Health Effects of Airborne Particulate
Matter

• Daily time-series studies have demonstrated small
  but consistent associations of PM with mortality
  and hospital admissions, reflecting acute
  effects.
• Acute effects on lung function, asthma
  exacerbations, and other outcomes
• Multi-city prospective cohort studies have shown
  increased mortality risk for cities with higher
  long-term PM concentrations, reflecting chronic
  effects.

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Implications

• Acute effects are well documented but of
  uncertain significance
• Chronic effects imply very large impacts on
  public health.
• A new US national ambient air quality standard
  for PM2.5 was established in 1997, largely based
  on the cohort epidemiology evidence
• Mechanistic explanation for chronic effects
  remains unclear
• Weaknesses in exposure assessment limits
  interpretation

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Acute
Chronic
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It is also unclear

• Whether a threshold exists
• Who is at risk due to
• Higher exposures
• Greater susceptibility
• What particle components are most toxic
• Which sources should be controlled

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Measurement of Airborne Particulate Matter

• Getting the size right
• A look at some field studies

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A typical impactor design for size-selective
particle sampling onto a filter
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Variation on a theme the Virtual Impactor
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Diesel Traffic and Air Pollution Study
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Truck and Bus Counts at Four Harlem
Intersections(Kinney et al., Environ. Health
Perspec., 2000)
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Mean Elemental Carbon Concentrations at Four
Harlem Intersections
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Air Toxic Exposures of High School Students, the
TEACH Study
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Close-up of personal sampling backpack
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Upwind site
Urban site
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Analysis of Particle Samples

• Mass determined by weighing Teflon filter before
  and after sampling under controlled conditions
• Elemental carbon estimated by light absorption
• Analysis of trace elements by ICP-mass
  spectrometry

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Winter NYC Individual DataIndoor and Outdoor
vs. Personal Absorbance
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Fe
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Elevated personal samples are consistent with
steel dust in subway air!
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Preliminary Conclusions

• We see strong urban influences on air toxic
  exposures for some particle components.
• Personal exposures are closely associated with
  outdoor concentrations of black carbon, an
  indicator of diesel exhaust particles.
• Diesel particle exposures are associated with
  lung cancer and have been suggested to play a
  role in asthma.
• New studies underway to examine the diesel/asthma
  link.

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Traffic-related Particle Exposures among NYC
Children P. Kinney, PI
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Urban Diesel Exposure and Inner City Asthma R.
Miller, PI Objective To assess geographic
associations between diesel exposure and asthma
development in a NYC birth cohort
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The Greenhouse Gases
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US greenhouse gas emission trends
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Air pollution and heat the Ozone example
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Impacts of Climate Change

• General warming greater at poles greater in
  winter
• Sea level rise
• Changing rainfall patterns
• Greater variability and intensity of weather
  extremes
• Longer and deeper droughts
• More frequent and extreme storms

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Climate Change and Public Health

• Changing patterns of rainfall will have profound
  effects on local agriculture, water supply, and
  well-being
• Heat-related mortality and morbidity
• Death and injury due to extreme storms
• Changing patterns of vector-borne diseases
• Air pollution
• Ability to adapt will vary with income level

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Another aspect of energy balance the Urban Heat
Island
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Urban Heat Island in Atlanta Metro Area
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Urban Heat Island over Tokyo
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New York Climate and Health Project

• How might health in the NY metropolitan region be
  affected by climate and land use change?

• Mailman School of Public Health
• Patrick Kinney (PI) Public health impact
  analysis
• Goddard Institute for Space Studies
• Cynthia Rosenzweig Global and regional
  climate modeling
• LDEO Chris Small Remote sensing
• Hunter College Bill Solecki Regional
  land-use/land-cover modeling
• SUNY Albany Christian Hogrefe Regional air
  quality modeling
• Duke University Roni Avissar Regional climate
  modeling

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Global Climate Model NASA-GISS
IPCC A2, B2 Scenarios
NY Climate Health Project
meteorological variables
Regional Climate ClimRAMS MM5
reflectance stomatal resistance surface
roughness
heat
Public Health Risk Assessment
meteorological variables temp., humidity, etc.
Land Use / Land Cover SLEUTH, Remote Sensing
Ozone PM2.5
Air Quality MODELS-3
IPCC A2, B2 Scenarios