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Job Analysis: Outline

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Title: Job Analysis: Outline


1
Job Analysis Outline
  • Overview and Uses of Job Analysis
  • General Methods of Collecting Job Analysis Data
  • Specific Methods of Job Analysis
  • Job Evaluation

2
Job Analysis Defined
? The systematic study of the tasks, duties,
and responsibilities of a job and the
qualities needed to perform it. ? A collection
of methods for understanding What a job consists
of and what is required in order to perform the
job.
3
Overview and Uses of Job Analysis
  • Job Description - a detailed description of job
    tasks, procedures, and responsibilities, the
    tools and equipment used, and the end product or
    service.
  • Job Specification - a statement of the knowledge,
    skills, abilities, and other human attributes
    (e.g., personality, competencies).

4
General Methods of Collecting Job Analysis Data
  • Interviewing and Conducting Focus Groups
  • Observation and Participation
  • Surveys
  • Job Diaries.

5
Job Analysis Interviewing Individuals and Groups
  • Subject Matter Experts (SMEs) incumbents,
    supervisors, subordinates, customers
  • Open-ended or structured
  • Individual or Group Interviews
  • Advantages detailed information, allows for
    flexibility in data collection
  • Disadvantages incumbents may misrepresent their
    job, can be time consuming and expensive.

6
Tips for Job Analysis Interviewing
  • Be prepared for the interview. Design questions
    ahead of time and do some homework on the job.
  • Always explain to the interviewee who you are and
    why you are there.
  • Show a sincere interest in the interviewee and
    his or her job.
  • Do not try to tell the interviewee how to do the
    job.
  • Try to talk to interviewees in their own
    language.
  • Encourage interviewees to speak but keep the
    interview on-track.

7
Job Analysis Observation and Participation
  • Ideally, one should observe a different
    incumbents on select (representative) occasions.
  • Observation works best with jobs involving manual
    operations, repetitive tasks, or other easily
    seen activities.
  • Advantages good information about job context,
    experiencing what it takes to do the job.
  • Disadvantages Hawthorne effect, time consuming
    and expensive, sometimes impractical.

8
Job Analysis Existing Data
  • Training manuals (or videos), existing job
    analyses, job descriptions, performance appraisal
    instruments
  • Advantages you dont have to hunt down
    information, good preliminary information to plan
    further data collection efforts
  • Disadvantages information may not pertain to the
    particular job you are analyzing

9
Job Analysis Survey Methods
  • Develop a questionnaire pertaining to relevant
    KSAOs and/or tasks and administer to a large
    number of job incumbents
  • Ratings may be gathered with regard to task
    difficulty, relative amount of time spent on
    task, criticality of error, importance for job
    success
  • Advantages time is saved, relatively
    inexpensive, assesses many perspectives
  • Disadvantage incumbents may misrepresent job,
    fatigue (from too many items) may limit the
    validity of responses

10
Specific Job Analysis Techniques
  • Critical Incidents Technique (CIT)
  • Functional Job Analysis (FJA)
  • Position Analysis Questionnaire (PAQ)

11
Critical Incidents Technique
  • A worker-oriented method developed by Flanagan
    (1954)
  • Worker oriented method of job analysis
  • Focuses on examples of particularly
    successful/unsuccessful on-the-job behaviors
  • Basic Procedure
  • SMEs are gathered to provide as many examples as
    possible.
  • Incidents are sorted into categories that make
    sense

12
Critical Incidents Technique
  • Advantages well suited for performance appraisal
  • Disadvantages focuses on extreme behaviors
    rather than typical behaviors, not applied very
    systematically

13
Functional Job Analysis
  • A job-oriented method developed by Department of
    Labor in the 1930s and later refined by Sydney
    Fine
  • Uses a variety of general methods of job analysis
    (e.g., interview, survey, observation)
  • The Dictionary of Occupational Titles was created
    with FJA
  • All jobs considered in 3 main dimensions
  • Data information, knowledge, concepts
  • People amount and type of contact with people
  • Things inanimate objects used on the job (MTEWA)

14
Functional Job Analysis
  • Basic Procedure
  • Break job down into tasks
  • Rate each task in terms of Data, People, and
    Things
  • Sum Scores to get a total composite on each
    dimension
  • Advantages comprehensive and effective, suitable
    for a wide variety of purposes
  • Disadvantage can be time-consuming and expensive

15
Position Analysis Questionnaire
  • A worker-oriented method developed by McCormick
    and associates at Purdue U.
  • Standardized questioning containing 194 job
    elements referring to a specific aspect of work
    behavior (e.g., use of measuring devices)
  • SMEs rate the relevance of the job elements that
    are organized into six categories (see textbook,
    p. 68)

16
Position Analysis Questionnaire
  • Advantages can be used for any job, good method
    for comparing jobs or classifying jobs,
    relatively inexpensive and easy to use
  • Disadvantages people may misrepresent their job,
    can take a lot of time to administer, must be
    interpreted at Purdue U., requires a high reading
    level

17
Limiting Error/Bias in Job Analysis
  • Use multiple sources of information about the job
  • Use more than one trained and experienced
    analyst, if possible
  • Give analysts enough time to do the job right
  • Check and recheck information and results

18
Job Evaluation
  • An assessment of the relative value of jobs to
    determine appropriate compensation.
  • A process that allows one to determine the
    financial worth of a job
  • Setting wages
  • Determining comparable worth (whether jobs that
    require equivalent KSAOs are compensated equally)

19
A Method of Job Evaluation
  • The Point System
  • Determine compensable factors - important and
    common work factors across jobs used to determine
    appropriate compensation (e.g., physical demands,
    responsibility, specialized knowledge, etc.)
  • Assign each job a score on each compensable
    factor.
  • Total scores on compensable factors and convert
    into dollar amounts.

20
A Method of Job Evaluation
  • The Point System
  • Market value of labor also may come into play
    (supply and demand).
  • A wage trend line can be created by plotting
    point totals against current wages.
  • When wage discrepancy is determined, the
    underpaid is usually given a raise.
  • Exceptioning is the practice of ignoring pay
    discrepancies between particular jobs possessing
    equivalent duties and responsibilities.

21
Employee Recruitment and Selection
  • Recruitment
  • Overview
  • General Considerations
  • Realistic Job Preview
  • Selection
  • Overview
  • Deciding Whether a Selection Test is Useful
  • Specific Selection Tests

22
Employee Recruitment
  • The process by which organizations attract
    potential workers to apply to jobs.
  • Attracting the most suitable and highly qualified
    applicants as quickly and cheaply as possible so
    that the applicant pool is large enough to be
    selective.
  • The success of recruitment efforts greatly
    determine whether selection processes will be
    effective.

23
Employee Recruitment
  • 4 Main Factors to Consider
  • Cost
  • Time-table
  • Necessity of attracting specific groups
  • Likelihood that the person hired will perform
    well and not turnover

24
Employee Recruitment
  • Recruitment Sources
  • ads
  • college recruitment/job fairs
  • unsolicited write-ins
  • walk-ins
  • company transfer and promotion
  • private employment agencies
  • executive search firms
  • employee referrals/word of mouth

25
Employee Recruitment
  • Affirmative Action Plan - a formal, written plan
    for reducing the under-representation of minority
    groups in an organization.
  • Under-representation - a marked discrepancy
    between the number of people in the labor force
    who are available for a job and the number who
    are actually employed.
  • Chilling Effect - an organization with a
    reputation for being uninterested toward certain
    groups of potential employees.

26
Employee Recruitment
27
Employee Recruitment
Recruitment Planning Graph
Leads
Invites
Interviews
of People
Offers
Hires
of Days
28
Employee Recruitment
  • In an effort to recruit applicants, organizations
    sometimes misrepresent jobs to make them seem
    more appealing than they are
  • Advantage - improves the selection ratio ( of
    positions to be filled/ of applicants)
  • Disadvantages
  • Turnover
  • Time and money expended to screen applicants.
  • Public relations problems

29
Employee Recruitment
  • Parkinson (1957) - Feature the negative aspects
    of the job and then only those people who are
    really suited to the job will apply
  • Advantages
  • Demands of the screening process are reduced
  • People who do apply will be well suited
  • Disadvantages
  • Few or no people may apply and therefore one
    cannot be selective
  • People discouraged may have been well suited for
    the job

30
Employee Recruitment
  • The Realistic Job Preview (RJP)
  • Wanous (1980)
  • an honest presentation of the prospective job
    and the organization given to applicants
  • may take many different forms a brochure, ad,
    oral presentation, site visit, videotape of the
    representative elements of the job

31
Employee Recruitment
Origins of RJP Wanous interviewed new
recruits and examined trends in their job
satisfaction
Job Satisfaction
Job Entrance
Decision to Take Job
Reality Shock Phase
Time
32
Employee Recruitment
  • Wanous suggested that RJPs work because they are
    a vaccination of expectations, that lead to
  • self-selection
  • decreased anticipated job satisfaction
  • increased commitment to the organization
  • increased tenure and decreased turnover
  • performance and job satisfaction increased as a
    result of role clarity

33
Employee Recruitment
  • Premack and Wanous (1985) conducted a
    meta-analysis of 21 studies of RJP (N 6000)
  • Six Main Results
  • RJPs reduce turnover
  • RJPs increase performance
  • RJPs lower expectations
  • RJPs increase self-selection
  • RJPs increase organizational commitment
  • RJPs increase job satisfaction

34
Employee Recruitment
  • Premack and Wanous (1985) meta-analysis
  • Boundary Conditions of RJP Effectiveness
  • RJP most likely to work when candidates have
    unrealistic expectations
  • Applicants must have a choice of accepting the
    job or not
  • Job must have some negative aspects that are
    likely to impact on the worker. The more negative
    aspects of the job, the greater the effectiveness
    of RJP

35
Employee Selection
  • The process of choosing applicants for employment
  • The purpose of employee selection processes are
    to increase productivity and save money by hiring
    the best people for the job
  • How do you go about selecting the best
    applicants?
  • Background Information
  • Selection Tests (e.g., paper and pencil tests,
    interviews, work samples)

36
Deciding whether a selection test is useful
  • Reliability - the consistency of a measurement
    instrument or its stability over time
  • Test-retest reliability - stability over time,
    correlation between test scores of the same
    individuals at two different points in time
  • Internal consistency - stability across items of
    a selection test, Cronbachs Alpha, average of
    all possible split-half correlations

37
Deciding whether a selection test is useful
  • Reliability
  • Parallel forms - stability across different
    versions of a selection test, correlation between
    test scores of the same individuals using two
    different versions of the selection test
  • Validity - concept referring to the accuracy of a
    measurement instrument
  • The extent to which a selection test is measuring
    what it is supposed to measure

38
Deciding whether a selection test is useful
  • The Difference Between Reliability and Validity
  • ACME Intelligence Test
  • 1. I am smart. T F
  • 2. I am really smart. T F
  • 3. I was smart yesterday. T F
  • 4. I will be smart tomorrow. T F
  • 5. I am not stupid. T F

39
Deciding whether a selection test is useful
  • Validity - Reliability is a necessary but not a
    sufficient condition for reliability. Reliability
    sets the upper bound of validity
  • Content Validity - The extent to which the
    content of the test is representative of what you
    are trying to measure (i.e., job performance)
  • Job analysis is essential for establishing
    content validity
  • Typically, determined via expert judgement

40
Deciding whether a selection test is useful
  • Face Validity - the extent to which a test
    appears to measure what it should be measuring
    (from the point of view of a non-expert taking
    the test)
  • Applicants may feel they have been treated
    unfairly when a test lacks face validity which
    may result in negative public relations and
    litigation
  • Although face validity is desirable, it is not
    sufficient evidence of the usefulness of a test,
    by itself

41
Deciding whether a selection test is useful
  • Criterion-related validity - the relationship
    between test scores and some job-related
    criterion (e.g., job performance, turnover, etc.)
  • The correlation between a selection test and a
    criterion is often referred to as the validity
    coefficient
  • Predictive Validity - follow-up method
  • Concurrent Validity - present-employee method

42
Deciding whether a selection test is useful
  • Construct Validity - A judgement based on all
    available data as to whether the test measures
    what it is supposed to measure
  • Utility - How much money the test is worth to the
    organization. Consists of
  • Costs associated with administering and using the
    test
  • Benefits derived by basing decisions on the test

43
Deciding whether a selection test is useful
  • Utility is affected by
  • Criterion-related validity
  • Selection ratio
  • Testing costs
  • Relative worth or good vs. poor performers (SDY)
  • Average tenure of workers in the company
  • Utility Analysis - a mathematical procedure of
    combining these considerations of utility

44
Deciding whether a selection test is useful
  • Adverse Impact and Test Bias - whether a test is
    fair for some group(s)of applicants (majority
    members) but unfair for members of some other
    group(s) of applicants (minority members)
  • Adverse impact occurs when the selection ratio
    for a minority group is considerably lower than
    the selection ratio of the majority group
  • Valid tests can result in adverse impact

45
Specific Selection Tests
  • Biodata
  • Cognitive Ability Tests
  • Personality Tests
  • Integrity Tests
  • Physical Agility Tests
  • Job Knowledge Tests
  • Work Simulations
  • Job Interviews
  • Assessment Centers

46
Biodata
  • Background information and personal
    characteristics that can be used in employee
    selection.
  • AKA Biographic Information Blank, Weighted
    Information Blank
  • An application blank containing questions that
    research has shown to measure the difference
    between successful and unsuccessful performers on
    a job.

47
Biodata
  • Advantages
  • Predictive of supervisor ratings, absenteeism,
    employee theft, sales, tenure, and organizational
    profit
  • Easy to use, quickly administered, inexpensive
  • Disadvantages
  • Dustbowl empiricism/statistical opportunism
  • Validity may not be stable over time
  • Bias, invasiveness, faking

48
Cognitive Ability Tests
  • General Mental Ability (g) - the singular,
    primary basis of intelligence
  • Tests typically include questions assessing
  • Verbal ability
  • Quantitative ability
  • Logic/Reasoning
  • Many researchers believe it is the single most
    diagnostic predictor of future job performance.

49
Cognitive Ability Tests
  • Advantages
  • Criterion-related validity typically ranges
    between .4 and .6
  • Some tests are very easy to administer
  • Not fakable
  • Disadvantages
  • Adverse impact

50
Personality Tests
  • Personality A pattern of characteristic
    thoughts, feelings, and behaviors that persist
    over time and situations and distinguishes one
    person from another.
  • Tests of Psychopathology (MMPI-2, Thematic
    Aptitude Test)
  • Tests of Normal Personality (NEO, Hogan
    Personality Inventory, 16 PF)
  • The Big Five Neuroticism, Extroversion, Openness
    to Experience, Conscientiousness, Agreeableness

51
Personality Tests
  • Advantages
  • Incremental Validity
  • Predict job performance even after you control
    for cognitive ability -- it compliments cognitive
    ability
  • Disadvantages
  • Faking
  • Face Validity

52
Integrity Tests
  • Integrity tests are measures of honest or
    dishonest attitudes and/or behaviors.
  • Overt integrity tests - the applicant clearly
    understands that the intent is to assess
    integrity.
  • Personality-based integrity tests - make no
    reference to theft.
  • Assess personality traits that have been found to
    be predictive of theft conscientiousness and
    emotional stability.

53
Integrity Tests
  • Advantages
  • Ones, Viswesvaran, and Schmidt (1998)
    meta-analysis found integrity tests predict
    theft, disciplinary problems, and absenteeism.
  • Disadvantages
  • Adverse impact
  • Can result in poor public relations

54
Physical Agility Tests
  • Physical Agility Tests are often used for jobs
    that require physical strength and stamina, such
    as police officer, firefighter, and lifeguard.
  • Basic physical abilities include
  • dynamic strength (ie., strength requiring
    repetitions)
  • trunk strength (e.g., stooping and bending over)
  • explosive strength (e.g., jumping)
  • static strength (i.e., strength not requiring
    repetitions)
  • stamina (i.e., ability to perform efficiently
    over long periods of time)
  • gross body coordination (i.e., balance)

55
Physical Agility Tests
  • Disadvantages
  • Adverse impact
  • Practicality/Difficult to administer
  • Job relatedness

56
Job Knowledge Tests
  • Designed to measure how much a person knows about
    a job.
  • Examples include
  • computer programming knowledge
  • knowledge of electronics
  • knowledge of mechanical principles

57
Job Knowledge Tests
  • Advantages
  • Content Validity
  • Criterion-related validity
  • Face Validity
  • Disadvantages
  • Adverse Impact

58
Work Samples
  • Work samples are tests that measure applicants
    to perform brief examples of important job tasks.
  • Examples of work samples
  • Paramedic candidates demonstrating CPR skills
  • Administrative Assistant candidates demonstrating
    typing skills
  • A truck-driving applicant being asked to back a
    truck up to a loading dock

59
Work Samples
  • Advantages
  • Content Validity
  • Criterion-related Validity
  • Face Validity
  • Less adverse impact than written exams
  • Disadvantages
  • Expensive to construct and administer

60
Job Interviews
  • The most popular employee selection procedure.
  • The common, unstructured interview tends to lack
    reliability and validity.
  • Different interviewers look for different things
    and interpret interviewee responses quite
    differently.
  • Campion, Campion, and Hudson (1994) reported that
    the criterion-related validity of the
    unstructured job interviews was .10.
  • Job applicants have become increasingly aware of
    interviewer biases and popular interview
    questions.

61
Job Interviews
  • Improving the job interview by providing
    structure to the process
  • Develop an interview guide so that all
    interviewers are asking the same questions
  • Base questions on a job analysis
  • Provide an area for interviewers to take notes on
    the applicants job-related responses
  • Have interviewers rate applicants responses
  • Conduct multiple interviews
  • Campion, Campion, and Hudson (1994) reported that
    the criterion-related validity of the structured
    job interviews was .34.

62
Job Interviews
  • Improving the job interview by providing training
    for interviewers that addresses the following
    biases
  • First impressions
  • Contrast effects
  • Similarity effects
  • Over-weighting of negative information
  • Physical attractiveness and nonverbal cues

63
Job Interviews
  • Advantages
  • Incremental Validity
  • Predict job performance even after you control
    for cognitive ability -- it compliments cognitive
    ability
  • Content Validity
  • Face Validity
  • Disadvantages
  • Adverse impact

64
Assessment Centers
  • Assessment centers are detailed, structured
    evaluations of job applicants using a variety of
    instruments and techniques
  • Characteristics of assessment centers include
  • At least one of the techniques used is a
    simulation
  • Multiple candidates and trained assessors are
    involved
  • Overall judgment regarding the applicant is based
    on information from multiple assessors and
    multiple techniques
  • All techniques are job-related.

65
Assessment Centers
  • Assessment center instruments and techniques
    typically include
  • Structured job interviews
  • Personality and cognitive ability tests
  • In-basket exercises
  • Role-playing
  • Leaderless group discussions
  • Business games

66
Assessment Centers
  • Advantages
  • Criterion-related validity
  • Particularly useful for selecting managerial
    candidates
  • Disadvantages
  • Expensive to construct and administer
  • Time consuming

67
Employee Selection Decisions
  • Clinical approach - a decision maker subjectively
    combines information about candidates
  • Multiple regression model - combining information
    with statistically determined weights
    (compensatory)
  • Multiple cutoffs - using a minimum cutoff score
    on each of the various selection tools
  • Multiple hurdle - requires that acceptance or
    rejection decision be made at each of several
    stages in a screening process

68
Selection Decisions
69
Setting Cutoff Scores
  • Norm-referenced Methods
  • Content Validity Methods
  • Criterion-related Validity Methods
  • Utility Analysis Methods

70
Setting Cutoff Scores
  • The process of setting cutoff scores should begin
    with job analysis
  • When possible, data on the actual relation of
    test scores to outcome measures of job
    performance should be considered carefully
  • Cutoff scores should be set high enough to ensure
    that minimum standards of job performance are met

71
Banding
  • In banding, differences in test scores that are
    not statistically different from the top score
    are ignored
  • The width of the band, or the proportion of the
    total test scores that are equivalent to the top
    score, is determined by the precision of the
    selection test.
  • Banding is controversial.

72
Legal Issues of Employee Selection
  • Civil Rights Act of 1964
  • Age Discrimination in Employment Act (1967)
  • Griggs v. Duke Power Co. (1971)
  • Albermarle Paper Co. v. Moody (1975)
  • Washington v. Davis (1976)
  • Connecticut v. Teal (1982)
  • Americans with Disabilities Act (1990)
  • Civil Rights Act of 1991

73
Affirmative Action
  • Affirmative Action is the development of policies
    that try to ensure that jobs are made available
    to qualified individuals regardless of sex, age,
    or ethnic background.
  • Affirmative Action Strategies
  • Intentional recruitment of minority applicants
  • Identification and removal of employment
    practices working against minority applicants and
    employees
  • Preferential hiring and promotion of minorities

74
Affirmative Action
  • Reasons for Affirmative Action Plans
  • Involuntary Government Regulation
  • Involuntary Court Order
  • Voluntary Consent Decree
  • Voluntary Desire to be a good citizen

75
Affirmative Action Plans
  • Effects of Affirmative Action Plans on non-target
    group members perception of target group members
  • Effects of Affirmative Action Plans on target
    group members
  • Effects of Affirmative Action Plans on
    organizations

76
Doing The Right Thing
  • The Performance Perspective
  • The Legal Perspective
  • The Moral-Ethical Perspective

77
Forms of Discrimination
  • Disparate Treatment
  • Disparate Impact
  • Reverse Discrimination
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