Title: Job Analysis: Outline
1Job Analysis Outline
- Overview and Uses of Job Analysis
- General Methods of Collecting Job Analysis Data
- Specific Methods of Job Analysis
- Job Evaluation
2Job Analysis Defined
? The systematic study of the tasks, duties,
and responsibilities of a job and the
qualities needed to perform it. ? A collection
of methods for understanding What a job consists
of and what is required in order to perform the
job.
3Overview and Uses of Job Analysis
- Job Description - a detailed description of job
tasks, procedures, and responsibilities, the
tools and equipment used, and the end product or
service. - Job Specification - a statement of the knowledge,
skills, abilities, and other human attributes
(e.g., personality, competencies).
4General Methods of Collecting Job Analysis Data
- Interviewing and Conducting Focus Groups
- Observation and Participation
- Surveys
- Job Diaries.
5Job Analysis Interviewing Individuals and Groups
- Subject Matter Experts (SMEs) incumbents,
supervisors, subordinates, customers - Open-ended or structured
- Individual or Group Interviews
- Advantages detailed information, allows for
flexibility in data collection - Disadvantages incumbents may misrepresent their
job, can be time consuming and expensive.
6Tips for Job Analysis Interviewing
- Be prepared for the interview. Design questions
ahead of time and do some homework on the job. - Always explain to the interviewee who you are and
why you are there. - Show a sincere interest in the interviewee and
his or her job. - Do not try to tell the interviewee how to do the
job. - Try to talk to interviewees in their own
language. - Encourage interviewees to speak but keep the
interview on-track.
7Job Analysis Observation and Participation
- Ideally, one should observe a different
incumbents on select (representative) occasions. - Observation works best with jobs involving manual
operations, repetitive tasks, or other easily
seen activities. - Advantages good information about job context,
experiencing what it takes to do the job. - Disadvantages Hawthorne effect, time consuming
and expensive, sometimes impractical.
8Job Analysis Existing Data
- Training manuals (or videos), existing job
analyses, job descriptions, performance appraisal
instruments - Advantages you dont have to hunt down
information, good preliminary information to plan
further data collection efforts - Disadvantages information may not pertain to the
particular job you are analyzing
9Job Analysis Survey Methods
- Develop a questionnaire pertaining to relevant
KSAOs and/or tasks and administer to a large
number of job incumbents - Ratings may be gathered with regard to task
difficulty, relative amount of time spent on
task, criticality of error, importance for job
success - Advantages time is saved, relatively
inexpensive, assesses many perspectives - Disadvantage incumbents may misrepresent job,
fatigue (from too many items) may limit the
validity of responses
10Specific Job Analysis Techniques
- Critical Incidents Technique (CIT)
- Functional Job Analysis (FJA)
- Position Analysis Questionnaire (PAQ)
11Critical Incidents Technique
- A worker-oriented method developed by Flanagan
(1954) - Worker oriented method of job analysis
- Focuses on examples of particularly
successful/unsuccessful on-the-job behaviors - Basic Procedure
- SMEs are gathered to provide as many examples as
possible. - Incidents are sorted into categories that make
sense
12Critical Incidents Technique
- Advantages well suited for performance appraisal
- Disadvantages focuses on extreme behaviors
rather than typical behaviors, not applied very
systematically
13Functional Job Analysis
- A job-oriented method developed by Department of
Labor in the 1930s and later refined by Sydney
Fine - Uses a variety of general methods of job analysis
(e.g., interview, survey, observation) - The Dictionary of Occupational Titles was created
with FJA - All jobs considered in 3 main dimensions
- Data information, knowledge, concepts
- People amount and type of contact with people
- Things inanimate objects used on the job (MTEWA)
14Functional Job Analysis
- Basic Procedure
- Break job down into tasks
- Rate each task in terms of Data, People, and
Things - Sum Scores to get a total composite on each
dimension - Advantages comprehensive and effective, suitable
for a wide variety of purposes - Disadvantage can be time-consuming and expensive
15Position Analysis Questionnaire
- A worker-oriented method developed by McCormick
and associates at Purdue U. - Standardized questioning containing 194 job
elements referring to a specific aspect of work
behavior (e.g., use of measuring devices) - SMEs rate the relevance of the job elements that
are organized into six categories (see textbook,
p. 68)
16Position Analysis Questionnaire
- Advantages can be used for any job, good method
for comparing jobs or classifying jobs,
relatively inexpensive and easy to use - Disadvantages people may misrepresent their job,
can take a lot of time to administer, must be
interpreted at Purdue U., requires a high reading
level
17Limiting Error/Bias in Job Analysis
- Use multiple sources of information about the job
- Use more than one trained and experienced
analyst, if possible - Give analysts enough time to do the job right
- Check and recheck information and results
18Job Evaluation
- An assessment of the relative value of jobs to
determine appropriate compensation. - A process that allows one to determine the
financial worth of a job - Setting wages
- Determining comparable worth (whether jobs that
require equivalent KSAOs are compensated equally)
19A Method of Job Evaluation
- The Point System
- Determine compensable factors - important and
common work factors across jobs used to determine
appropriate compensation (e.g., physical demands,
responsibility, specialized knowledge, etc.) - Assign each job a score on each compensable
factor. - Total scores on compensable factors and convert
into dollar amounts.
20A Method of Job Evaluation
- The Point System
- Market value of labor also may come into play
(supply and demand). - A wage trend line can be created by plotting
point totals against current wages. - When wage discrepancy is determined, the
underpaid is usually given a raise. - Exceptioning is the practice of ignoring pay
discrepancies between particular jobs possessing
equivalent duties and responsibilities.
21Employee Recruitment and Selection
- Recruitment
- Overview
- General Considerations
- Realistic Job Preview
- Selection
- Overview
- Deciding Whether a Selection Test is Useful
- Specific Selection Tests
22Employee Recruitment
- The process by which organizations attract
potential workers to apply to jobs. - Attracting the most suitable and highly qualified
applicants as quickly and cheaply as possible so
that the applicant pool is large enough to be
selective. - The success of recruitment efforts greatly
determine whether selection processes will be
effective.
23Employee Recruitment
- 4 Main Factors to Consider
- Cost
- Time-table
- Necessity of attracting specific groups
- Likelihood that the person hired will perform
well and not turnover
24Employee Recruitment
- Recruitment Sources
- ads
- college recruitment/job fairs
- unsolicited write-ins
- walk-ins
- company transfer and promotion
- private employment agencies
- executive search firms
- employee referrals/word of mouth
25Employee Recruitment
- Affirmative Action Plan - a formal, written plan
for reducing the under-representation of minority
groups in an organization. - Under-representation - a marked discrepancy
between the number of people in the labor force
who are available for a job and the number who
are actually employed. - Chilling Effect - an organization with a
reputation for being uninterested toward certain
groups of potential employees.
26Employee Recruitment
27Employee Recruitment
Recruitment Planning Graph
Leads
Invites
Interviews
of People
Offers
Hires
of Days
28Employee Recruitment
- In an effort to recruit applicants, organizations
sometimes misrepresent jobs to make them seem
more appealing than they are - Advantage - improves the selection ratio ( of
positions to be filled/ of applicants) - Disadvantages
- Turnover
- Time and money expended to screen applicants.
- Public relations problems
29Employee Recruitment
- Parkinson (1957) - Feature the negative aspects
of the job and then only those people who are
really suited to the job will apply - Advantages
- Demands of the screening process are reduced
- People who do apply will be well suited
- Disadvantages
- Few or no people may apply and therefore one
cannot be selective - People discouraged may have been well suited for
the job
30Employee Recruitment
- The Realistic Job Preview (RJP)
- Wanous (1980)
- an honest presentation of the prospective job
and the organization given to applicants - may take many different forms a brochure, ad,
oral presentation, site visit, videotape of the
representative elements of the job
31Employee Recruitment
Origins of RJP Wanous interviewed new
recruits and examined trends in their job
satisfaction
Job Satisfaction
Job Entrance
Decision to Take Job
Reality Shock Phase
Time
32Employee Recruitment
- Wanous suggested that RJPs work because they are
a vaccination of expectations, that lead to - self-selection
- decreased anticipated job satisfaction
- increased commitment to the organization
- increased tenure and decreased turnover
- performance and job satisfaction increased as a
result of role clarity
33Employee Recruitment
- Premack and Wanous (1985) conducted a
meta-analysis of 21 studies of RJP (N 6000) - Six Main Results
- RJPs reduce turnover
- RJPs increase performance
- RJPs lower expectations
- RJPs increase self-selection
- RJPs increase organizational commitment
- RJPs increase job satisfaction
34Employee Recruitment
- Premack and Wanous (1985) meta-analysis
- Boundary Conditions of RJP Effectiveness
- RJP most likely to work when candidates have
unrealistic expectations - Applicants must have a choice of accepting the
job or not - Job must have some negative aspects that are
likely to impact on the worker. The more negative
aspects of the job, the greater the effectiveness
of RJP
35Employee Selection
- The process of choosing applicants for employment
- The purpose of employee selection processes are
to increase productivity and save money by hiring
the best people for the job - How do you go about selecting the best
applicants? - Background Information
- Selection Tests (e.g., paper and pencil tests,
interviews, work samples)
36Deciding whether a selection test is useful
- Reliability - the consistency of a measurement
instrument or its stability over time - Test-retest reliability - stability over time,
correlation between test scores of the same
individuals at two different points in time - Internal consistency - stability across items of
a selection test, Cronbachs Alpha, average of
all possible split-half correlations
37Deciding whether a selection test is useful
- Reliability
- Parallel forms - stability across different
versions of a selection test, correlation between
test scores of the same individuals using two
different versions of the selection test - Validity - concept referring to the accuracy of a
measurement instrument - The extent to which a selection test is measuring
what it is supposed to measure
38Deciding whether a selection test is useful
- The Difference Between Reliability and Validity
- ACME Intelligence Test
- 1. I am smart. T F
- 2. I am really smart. T F
- 3. I was smart yesterday. T F
- 4. I will be smart tomorrow. T F
- 5. I am not stupid. T F
39Deciding whether a selection test is useful
- Validity - Reliability is a necessary but not a
sufficient condition for reliability. Reliability
sets the upper bound of validity - Content Validity - The extent to which the
content of the test is representative of what you
are trying to measure (i.e., job performance) - Job analysis is essential for establishing
content validity - Typically, determined via expert judgement
40Deciding whether a selection test is useful
- Face Validity - the extent to which a test
appears to measure what it should be measuring
(from the point of view of a non-expert taking
the test) - Applicants may feel they have been treated
unfairly when a test lacks face validity which
may result in negative public relations and
litigation - Although face validity is desirable, it is not
sufficient evidence of the usefulness of a test,
by itself
41Deciding whether a selection test is useful
- Criterion-related validity - the relationship
between test scores and some job-related
criterion (e.g., job performance, turnover, etc.) - The correlation between a selection test and a
criterion is often referred to as the validity
coefficient - Predictive Validity - follow-up method
- Concurrent Validity - present-employee method
42Deciding whether a selection test is useful
- Construct Validity - A judgement based on all
available data as to whether the test measures
what it is supposed to measure - Utility - How much money the test is worth to the
organization. Consists of - Costs associated with administering and using the
test - Benefits derived by basing decisions on the test
43Deciding whether a selection test is useful
- Utility is affected by
- Criterion-related validity
- Selection ratio
- Testing costs
- Relative worth or good vs. poor performers (SDY)
- Average tenure of workers in the company
- Utility Analysis - a mathematical procedure of
combining these considerations of utility
44Deciding whether a selection test is useful
- Adverse Impact and Test Bias - whether a test is
fair for some group(s)of applicants (majority
members) but unfair for members of some other
group(s) of applicants (minority members) - Adverse impact occurs when the selection ratio
for a minority group is considerably lower than
the selection ratio of the majority group - Valid tests can result in adverse impact
45Specific Selection Tests
- Biodata
- Cognitive Ability Tests
- Personality Tests
- Integrity Tests
- Physical Agility Tests
- Job Knowledge Tests
- Work Simulations
- Job Interviews
- Assessment Centers
46Biodata
- Background information and personal
characteristics that can be used in employee
selection. - AKA Biographic Information Blank, Weighted
Information Blank - An application blank containing questions that
research has shown to measure the difference
between successful and unsuccessful performers on
a job.
47Biodata
- Advantages
- Predictive of supervisor ratings, absenteeism,
employee theft, sales, tenure, and organizational
profit - Easy to use, quickly administered, inexpensive
- Disadvantages
- Dustbowl empiricism/statistical opportunism
- Validity may not be stable over time
- Bias, invasiveness, faking
48Cognitive Ability Tests
- General Mental Ability (g) - the singular,
primary basis of intelligence - Tests typically include questions assessing
- Verbal ability
- Quantitative ability
- Logic/Reasoning
- Many researchers believe it is the single most
diagnostic predictor of future job performance.
49Cognitive Ability Tests
- Advantages
- Criterion-related validity typically ranges
between .4 and .6 - Some tests are very easy to administer
- Not fakable
- Disadvantages
- Adverse impact
50Personality Tests
- Personality A pattern of characteristic
thoughts, feelings, and behaviors that persist
over time and situations and distinguishes one
person from another. - Tests of Psychopathology (MMPI-2, Thematic
Aptitude Test) - Tests of Normal Personality (NEO, Hogan
Personality Inventory, 16 PF) - The Big Five Neuroticism, Extroversion, Openness
to Experience, Conscientiousness, Agreeableness
51Personality Tests
- Advantages
- Incremental Validity
- Predict job performance even after you control
for cognitive ability -- it compliments cognitive
ability - Disadvantages
- Faking
- Face Validity
52Integrity Tests
- Integrity tests are measures of honest or
dishonest attitudes and/or behaviors. - Overt integrity tests - the applicant clearly
understands that the intent is to assess
integrity. - Personality-based integrity tests - make no
reference to theft. - Assess personality traits that have been found to
be predictive of theft conscientiousness and
emotional stability.
53Integrity Tests
- Advantages
- Ones, Viswesvaran, and Schmidt (1998)
meta-analysis found integrity tests predict
theft, disciplinary problems, and absenteeism. - Disadvantages
- Adverse impact
- Can result in poor public relations
54Physical Agility Tests
- Physical Agility Tests are often used for jobs
that require physical strength and stamina, such
as police officer, firefighter, and lifeguard. - Basic physical abilities include
- dynamic strength (ie., strength requiring
repetitions) - trunk strength (e.g., stooping and bending over)
- explosive strength (e.g., jumping)
- static strength (i.e., strength not requiring
repetitions) - stamina (i.e., ability to perform efficiently
over long periods of time) - gross body coordination (i.e., balance)
55Physical Agility Tests
- Disadvantages
- Adverse impact
- Practicality/Difficult to administer
- Job relatedness
56Job Knowledge Tests
- Designed to measure how much a person knows about
a job. - Examples include
- computer programming knowledge
- knowledge of electronics
- knowledge of mechanical principles
57Job Knowledge Tests
- Advantages
- Content Validity
- Criterion-related validity
- Face Validity
- Disadvantages
- Adverse Impact
58Work Samples
- Work samples are tests that measure applicants
to perform brief examples of important job tasks. - Examples of work samples
- Paramedic candidates demonstrating CPR skills
- Administrative Assistant candidates demonstrating
typing skills - A truck-driving applicant being asked to back a
truck up to a loading dock
59Work Samples
- Advantages
- Content Validity
- Criterion-related Validity
- Face Validity
- Less adverse impact than written exams
- Disadvantages
- Expensive to construct and administer
60Job Interviews
- The most popular employee selection procedure.
- The common, unstructured interview tends to lack
reliability and validity. - Different interviewers look for different things
and interpret interviewee responses quite
differently. - Campion, Campion, and Hudson (1994) reported that
the criterion-related validity of the
unstructured job interviews was .10. - Job applicants have become increasingly aware of
interviewer biases and popular interview
questions.
61Job Interviews
- Improving the job interview by providing
structure to the process - Develop an interview guide so that all
interviewers are asking the same questions - Base questions on a job analysis
- Provide an area for interviewers to take notes on
the applicants job-related responses - Have interviewers rate applicants responses
- Conduct multiple interviews
- Campion, Campion, and Hudson (1994) reported that
the criterion-related validity of the structured
job interviews was .34.
62Job Interviews
- Improving the job interview by providing training
for interviewers that addresses the following
biases - First impressions
- Contrast effects
- Similarity effects
- Over-weighting of negative information
- Physical attractiveness and nonverbal cues
63Job Interviews
- Advantages
- Incremental Validity
- Predict job performance even after you control
for cognitive ability -- it compliments cognitive
ability - Content Validity
- Face Validity
- Disadvantages
- Adverse impact
64Assessment Centers
- Assessment centers are detailed, structured
evaluations of job applicants using a variety of
instruments and techniques - Characteristics of assessment centers include
- At least one of the techniques used is a
simulation - Multiple candidates and trained assessors are
involved - Overall judgment regarding the applicant is based
on information from multiple assessors and
multiple techniques - All techniques are job-related.
65Assessment Centers
- Assessment center instruments and techniques
typically include - Structured job interviews
- Personality and cognitive ability tests
- In-basket exercises
- Role-playing
- Leaderless group discussions
- Business games
66Assessment Centers
- Advantages
- Criterion-related validity
- Particularly useful for selecting managerial
candidates - Disadvantages
- Expensive to construct and administer
- Time consuming
67Employee Selection Decisions
- Clinical approach - a decision maker subjectively
combines information about candidates - Multiple regression model - combining information
with statistically determined weights
(compensatory) - Multiple cutoffs - using a minimum cutoff score
on each of the various selection tools - Multiple hurdle - requires that acceptance or
rejection decision be made at each of several
stages in a screening process
68Selection Decisions
69Setting Cutoff Scores
- Norm-referenced Methods
- Content Validity Methods
- Criterion-related Validity Methods
- Utility Analysis Methods
70Setting Cutoff Scores
- The process of setting cutoff scores should begin
with job analysis - When possible, data on the actual relation of
test scores to outcome measures of job
performance should be considered carefully - Cutoff scores should be set high enough to ensure
that minimum standards of job performance are met
71Banding
- In banding, differences in test scores that are
not statistically different from the top score
are ignored - The width of the band, or the proportion of the
total test scores that are equivalent to the top
score, is determined by the precision of the
selection test. - Banding is controversial.
72Legal Issues of Employee Selection
- Civil Rights Act of 1964
- Age Discrimination in Employment Act (1967)
- Griggs v. Duke Power Co. (1971)
- Albermarle Paper Co. v. Moody (1975)
- Washington v. Davis (1976)
- Connecticut v. Teal (1982)
- Americans with Disabilities Act (1990)
- Civil Rights Act of 1991
73Affirmative Action
- Affirmative Action is the development of policies
that try to ensure that jobs are made available
to qualified individuals regardless of sex, age,
or ethnic background. - Affirmative Action Strategies
- Intentional recruitment of minority applicants
- Identification and removal of employment
practices working against minority applicants and
employees - Preferential hiring and promotion of minorities
74Affirmative Action
- Reasons for Affirmative Action Plans
- Involuntary Government Regulation
- Involuntary Court Order
- Voluntary Consent Decree
- Voluntary Desire to be a good citizen
75Affirmative Action Plans
- Effects of Affirmative Action Plans on non-target
group members perception of target group members - Effects of Affirmative Action Plans on target
group members - Effects of Affirmative Action Plans on
organizations
76Doing The Right Thing
- The Performance Perspective
- The Legal Perspective
- The Moral-Ethical Perspective
77Forms of Discrimination
- Disparate Treatment
- Disparate Impact
- Reverse Discrimination