Title: C
1C Object-Oriented Programming
2A class is a unit of encapsulation
- Public operations, and
- private implementation.
3A class is an abstraction
- String abstracts the char of C,
- stack -- the canonical abstraction
- List
- Student,
- etc.
4Classes and C structures
- default access for class private
- default access for structpublic
This is the only difference between a C class
and a C structure.
5Classes
- Example of a bad class declaration
- class Student
- public
- float gpa
- char name
-
6Classes and structures
- Correct example of Class Declaration
- class Student
- private
- float gpa
- char name
-
- do we need the private designation?
How do I access the "private" data?
7Classes writing set and get functions
- class Student
- public
- void setGpa(float g) gpa g
- void setName(char n)
- name new charstrlen(n)1
- strcpy(name, n)
-
-
- private
- float gpa
- char name
provide accessor and modifier functions
What's missing?
8Classes and Objects
- Declaration of a class variable (i.e. object)
- Student s, t
- Student v
- int i
- float x
- The syntax is identical to conventional variable
declarations.
This one is on the stack.
This one will be on the heap.
9Classes
- Since class declarations will likely be used by
many program modules, put them in a header file
that can be included as required - include Student.h
10Classes and Objects
- Access to class data members
- s.setGpa(3.5)
- s.setName(Dana)
- v new Student(4.0, Fox)
- t s
-
- The Student class also needs constructors
function call
shallow copy?
11Classes constructors
- class Student
- public
- Student() //default
- Student(char, float) //conversion
- Student(const Student) //copy
- friend ostream operatorltlt(ostream ,
- const Student )
- private
- char name
- float gpa
This is an example of an improper class
definition!
12Constructor parameters
- Default no parameters
- Conversion parameters to make one
- Copy the parameter is the copy instance
Default is used with arrays of objects.
Copy is used with "pass by value"
13Constructors/destructors
- Guarantee that data is initialized
- allow classes to manage memory
- constructors allocate new
- destructors deallocate delete
Especially important for heap based memory
14Prefer initialization to assignment
class Student public Student(int a)
age(a), iq(age100) Student(int a) age
a iq age 100 private int age
int iq
15Prefer init to assign
- Initialization is more efficient for data members
that are objects - init uses copy constructor
- assign uses default constructor and assignment
- only way to pass a parameter to base class
16Passing param to base class
class Person public Person(int a) age(a)
private int age class Student
public Person public Student(int age, float
g) Person(age), gpa(g) private float
gpa
17List members in init list in order that they are
declared
class members are initialized in the order
of their declaration in the class! Whats the
value of iq? class Student public
Student(int a) age(a), iq(age100) private
int iq int age
18Exercise to learn constructors
- Write 3 constructors and a destructor for Student
class. Test it with
void fun(Student stu) int main() Student
a, b(Darth Maul, 3.5), c b Student d
new Student(Anakin, 4.0) cout ltlt d ltlt
endl fun(a) return 0
19Why is this a bad class definition?at least 2
member functions missing
- class Student
- public
- Student() //default
- Student(char, float) //conversion
- Student(const Student) //copy
- friend ostream operatorltlt(ostream ,
- const Student )
- private
- char name
- float gpa
This is an example of an improper class
definition!
20Q what output should we get
- int main()
- Student x(Count Dooku), y(Anakin)
- x y
- y.setName(Darth Maul)
- cout ltlt x ltlt endl
Soln need deep copy operator
21Copying a class object
Original Object
Shallow Copy
22Copying a class object
Original Object
Deep Copy
23Canonical orthodox class form J. Coplien
- Default constructor
- copy constructor
- destructor
- assignment operator
operatorltlt
24What functions does Csilently write?
class Empty class Empty public
Empty() Empty(const Empty ) Empty()
Empty operator(const Empty ) Empty
operator() const Empty operator()
const
If you write this
You get this if needed!
25How would you need them?
const Empty e1 // need default constructor,
and // destructor Empty e2(e1) // copy
constructor e2 e1 // assignment
operator Empty pe2 e2 // address-of
operator (non const) const Empty pe1 e1 //
address-of operator (const)
26What do the compiler generated functions look
like?
inline EmptyEmpty() inline EmptyEmpty()
inline Empty Emptyoperator() return
this inline const Empty Emptyoperator()
const return this The copy constructor
and assignment operator simply do a member wise
copy, i.e., shallow. Note that the default
assignment induces a memory leak in Student!
note destructor is NOT virtual
27When do we need to write a copy constructor,
destructor assign operator?
- Anytime the class has heap-based data members
- all base classes should have a virtual destructor
- Studies have shown that, if you dont need
copy/assign, the compiler generated functions run
10-20 faster than programmer generated ones.
28How do we overload assignment?
Student operator(const Student stu) if
(this stu) return this delete name
name new charstrlen(stu.name)1
strcpy(name, stu.name) gpa stu.gpa
return this
(1) Why the comparison on the first line? (2)
Could the first line be if (this stu)? (3)
Why return this? What does it enable? (4) Why
not return stu, rather than this?
29Formula for overloaded assignment
- Check for equality of lhs rhs
- delete storage for lhs
- create new storage for lhs, thats size of rhs
- copy rhs stuff to lhs
- return this
30an overloaded binary operator
- can be written in infix form
- a b
- cout ltlt stu
- or can be written in prefix form
- a.operator(b)
- cout.operatorltlt(stu)
here it's more obvious what "this" is
31Principle of least privilege
- Can reduce debugging and provide documentation by
only allowing a function the least amount of
privilege - can prevent a function from modifying a parameter
- can prevent a member function from modifying data
attributes - allow a function enough data access to accomplish
its task and no more!
32Explicitly disallow any implicit functions you
dont want!
- Suppose you want to write a class template array
that behaves like C arrays, except that it does
bounds check - C does not allow array assignment e.g. int
a10, b10 a b //error
dont define the operator to keep member
friend functions from using it!
class Array private Array operator(const
Array )
33Overloading operators
- almost all operators can be overloaded
- operators are binary or unary
- have the same precedence as their compiler
counterpart - can be members or friends, usually
- overloaded output operator cannot be a member of
any user defined class
34overloading output operatoras a friend function
class Student public getName() return
name getGpa() return gpa
friend ostream operatorltlt(ostream , const
Student ) private char name float
gpa ostream operatorltlt(ostream out,
const Student s) out ltlt s.getName() ltlt
\t ltlt s.getGpa() return out
35Overloading output operatoras stand-alone
function
class Student public getName() return
name getGpa() return gpa
private char name float
gpa ostream operatorltlt(ostream out,
const Student s) out ltlt s.getName() ltlt
\t ltlt s.getGpa() return out
What's wrong with this class definition?
36Put prototype in header file,and body in
implementation file
class Student public getName() const
return name getGpa() const return gpa
private char name float
gpa ostream operatorltlt(ostream , const
Student ) ostream operatorltlt(ostream out,
const Student s) out ltlt s.getName() ltlt
\t ltlt s.getGpa() return out
header file
implementation file
37Exercise with classes
- Complete the definition of Student with all 3
constructors, overloaded assignment, overloaded
output, and get and set - Write a main program that contains 2 functions
- a function to init the list with 3 Students
- a function that prints the list
38Using students
- In actual practice, we want to store lots of
students - need an array of students
- Student list10
- Q How many times does a constructor
get called for list? - Q which constructor?
39Whats missing
- Need an easier way to print a student
- overload the output operator ltlt
- operatorltlt must be a friend function cannot be
a member function cuz its already a member of
class ostream - Need a class to manage the list of Students
40Friends
- Can access private member functions and private
data attributes! - Can be functions or classes
- Might not always be best solution!
41Overloading the output operator
- Class Student
- public
- friend ostream operatorltlt(ostream out,
const Student student) - out ltlt student.name
- return out
-
42Class StudentManager public
StudentManager() count(0) void
insert(const Student ) friend ostream
operatorltlt(ostream , const Student
) private int count Student
list100
42
42
43Class StudentManager public
StudentManager() count(0) void
insert(const Student student)
listcount student friend ostream
operatorltlt(ostream out,
const Student
student) for (int i 0 i lt count
i) out ltlt studenti ltlt endl
return out private int count
Student list100
43
43
44Class exercise
- Complete the StudentManager Class
- rewrite main to use the List Class.
- Write a new main program that allows the user to
choose among commands - insert student
- delete student
- print the list
- find a student
- exit
45Discussion of Manager class
- Advantages
- encapsulates functionality into a single class
- simplifies the main program
- Disadvantages
- there is a limit (100) on number of Students
- Student default constructor called 100 times!
46Suggested Naming Conventions
- global constants ALL CAPS!
- local global variables ALL LOWER CASE, USE
UNDERSCORE - Class names BEGIN EACH WORD WITH UPPER CASE, NO
UNDERSCORE - Class member functions BEGIN LOWER CASE, then
BEGIN EACH WORKD WITH UPPER CASE - Data members SAME AS MEMBER FUNCTIONS
47Operator OverloadingADT for binary math
- Would like variables of type binary to be like
any other data type. Thus - overload arithmetic operators
- overload output to be binary
- overload input to use decimal
- How do we represent internally?
48Binary should look like int
include Binary.h main() int sum 0
Binary number1, number2 7 number1 15
cout ltlt number1 number2 ltlt endl
49// This is file Binary.h class Binary public
Binary() number(0) Binary(int n)
number(n) Binary(const Binary bin)
Binary operator(const Binary ) Binary
operator() Binary operator(const Binary
) friend ostream operatorltlt(ostream ,
const Binary ) private int number
Where's the destructor?
49
49
50include Binary.h // this is file
Binary.cpp Binary Binaryoperator(const Binary
rhs) Binary temp(numberrhs.number)
return temp Binary operator()
number return this
50
50
51// this is a global function s/b in
Binary.cpp ostream operatorltlt(ostream out,
const Binary bin) stackltintgt stk int
number bin.number while (number)
stk.push( number 2 ) number / 2
while ( !stk.empty() ) out ltlt
stk.top() stk.pop() return out
51
51
52Exercise for Binary type
- Complete the class definition for Binary
- construct a main program that uses Binary
- Discuss return value transmission mode
- operator
- operator
- operator (postfix, prefix)
- Discuss merits of friend vs member functions for
, , output, etc.
53Discussion of Binary class
- Compilation can be made simpler by using a
makefile - makefile automatically compiles and links program
modules - makefiles are mysterious
54makefile/Makefile
- Consist of definitions,
- Followed by sequences of 2 line commands.
- Begins with id, followed by dependencies of id.
- Second line is the rule to make id this line
MUST be preceded by a tab - To use the make file type make ltidgt
55CCCg FLAGS-Wall main main.o
Binary.o (CCC) (FLAGS) -o main main.o
Binary.o main.o main.cpp Binary.h (CCC)
(FLAGS) -c main.cpp Binary.o Binary.cpp
Binary.h (CCC) (FLAGS) -c Binary.cpp clean r
m -f main .o core
55
55
56Discussion of makefile
- (CCC) permits us to easily switch to another
compiler e.g. CC - make clean will clean the directory of large
files - -o option creates an executable
- -c option creates .o file
57C-strings are no fun
- Programmer must manage memory
- comparison is awkward
- concatenation is non-standard
- strcat(a, b), instead of
- a b
- No substring facilities
58Solution write our own String classWhat do we
need
- Constructors
- default
- conversion
- copy
- overloaded operators
- output
- concatenation
59Dynamic storage
- Need pointers
- never run out of room -)
- must allocate storage new
- must also deallocate storage delete
- failure to deallocate storage memory leak
- constructors/destructors were designed to
facilitate memory management
60// This class definition of String s/b in file
String.h class String public String()
String(char ) String(const String )
String operator(const String ) int len()
const friend ostream operatorltlt(ostream ,
const String ) private char buf
60
60
61// This class definition of String s/b in file
String.h class String public String(int n
0) buf(new charn1) buf0 \0
String(char s) buf(new charstrlen(s)1)
strcpy(buf, s) String(const String )
String() delete buf char
operator(int i) return bufi String
operator(const String ) int len() const
return strlen(buf) friend ostream
operatorltlt(ostream , const String ) private
char buf
61
61
62// This is file String.cpp include
String.h ostream operatorltlt(ostream out,
const String s) out ltlt s.buf return
out String Stringoperator(const String
rhs) String temp( strlen(buf)strlen(rhs.buf)
) strcpy(temp.buf, buf) strcat(temp.buf,
rhs.buf) return temp
62
62
63We need operator
- Discuss the merits of the following comparison
function - bool Stringoperator(const String rhs)
- return (this rhs)
64String exercise
- Discuss whats missing from String spec
- Complete the class definition and implementation
write copy constructor - Write a main program that uses Strings.
- Write a makefile
- Thoroughly test the class
- Is there one in the standard C library?
65String exercise
- Add operator to String
- Q when are constructors called?
- Q when is assignment called?
- Q which is better initialization or assignment?
- Consider main.cpp, String.h and String.cpp
orthodox canonical class form
66include String.h String Stringoperator(co
nst String rhs) if (this rhs) return
this delete buf buf new
charstrlen(rhs.buf) 1 strcpy(buf,
rhs.buf) return this
66
66
67Discussion of Stringoperator
- Note the return transmission mode. Why?
- what happens if we do not delete buf?
- Why do we need 1 when we new buf ?
- What does return this mean?
- Discuss the following 3 options
- if (this rhs) return this
- if (this rhs) return this
- if (strcmp(buf, rhs.buf) 0) return this
68include String.h int main() String a,
b(hello), c(a), d world
What constructors are called?
68
68
69// Note that its more efficient if
constructors // use initialization rather than
assignment. // To see place cout in
constructors for String! class Test public
Test(char n) name(n) // initialization
Test(char n) name n //
assignment private String name main()
Test t(surprise)
69
69
70Making Strings useful
- Sometimes we want to run through a string i.e.
iterate through the string. - For example, if we read a line of text from a
file, we might want to access each word on the
line. - Can write a special class called an iterator
71Iterator class
- Allows user to look at each item in the data
structure - can be forward or backward
- can have more than one iterator on a given data
structure
72iterator
- For a linked list would return each item in the
list, starting with the first an proceeding
through the list - for a string might return each word in the list,
or it might return each character - for a tree would return each item in the tree,
in some order (preorder, depth first, etc.)
73// partial specification for iterator over
String class StringIterator public
StringIterator(const String s, char d )
str(s), index(0) , delim(d)
void operator() String operator() ()
const bool atEnd() const return index
str.len() private String str unsigned
int index char delim
73
73
74StringIterator spec discussion
- Constructor must init data members in the order
that they are listed in the declaration - default delimiter is a blank
- overloaded parens looks odd
- note that str.len() is one past the end!
- we could overload operatorltlt for debugging
75// implementation of operator include
StringIterator.h void StringIteratoroperator
() while (index lt str.len()
strindex ! delim) index while
(index lt str.len() strindex delim)
index
75
75
76// implementation of operator() String
StringIteratoroperator() () const char
buf80 int temp_index index, i 0
while (temp_index lt str.len()
strtemp_index ! delim) bufi
strtemp_index bufi \0
return String(buf)
might be better to overload operator()
76
76
77StringIterator exercises
- Complete the specification and implementation
- overload operatorltlt for debugging
- thoroughly test your ADT
- extend StringIterator to accept a set of
delimiters - what happens if you initialize the data members
in different order than they are declared?
78Stack a common data structure
- Public operations
- push
- pop
- test empty
- possibly test full
- private data representation
The canonical abstraction
78
79class IntStack public IntStack()
count(EMPTY) void push(int n)
itemscount n void pop()
--count int top() const
return itemscount bool isEmpty() const
return count EMPTY bool isFull() const
return count 99 private enum
EMPTY -1 int items100 int count
79
79
80Stack exercise
- Implement and test Stack class
- Discuss alternatives to items100
- modify IntStack so that it accepts a parameter
describing the size of items - Discuss drawbacks of IntStack
- What are solutions to drawbacks?
81Template classes
- Functions accept variables as parameters
- template classes accept types as parameters
- functions can also use templates
82template ltclass Tgt class Stack public
Stack() count(EMPTY) void push(const T
n) itemscount n void pop()
--count const T top() const
return itemscount bool isEmpty()
const return count EMPTY bool
isFull() const return count 99
private enum EMPTY -1 T
items100 int count
82
82
83Discussion of template stack
- Note the change in parameter transmission from
IntStack to StackltTgt - Note that top() passes return by value can
pass-by-value return be avoided? - Can arrays, in C, be dimensioned dynamically?
- What happens if user pops from empty stack?
84Exceptions
- Useful for handling error conditions.
- Also useful for exceptional cases, such as eof,
end-of-line, etc. - keywords try, catch, throw
85How to use exceptions
- Each try block has corresponding catch block(s)
- calls to functions that may throw an exception
are placed in a try block. - The called function, when faced with exceptional
condition, performs a throw - the exception is thrown back, through the call
chain, to matching catch, or - program bombs!
86// give the output for the program below void
fun(int number) if (number 2 0)
throw error cout ltlt This is fun ltlt
endl main() try fun(2)
fun(3) catch (char msg)
cout ltlt msg ltlt endl return 1
86
87// give the output for the program below void
fun(int number) if (number 2 0)
throw error cout ltlt This is fun ltlt
endl main() int n 2 while (n)
try fun(n--) catch (char
msg) cout ltlt msg ltlt endl
87
88class Clean public Clean() cout ltlt
constructing Clean ltlt endl Clean()
cout ltlt destroying Clean ltlt endl void
fun() Clean c throw error main()
try fun() catch(char msg) cout
ltlt msg ltlt endl
what's the output? what's the point?
88
89Stack exercise
- Add exception handling to Stack class
- write a main program with try/catch block that
uses Stack
90Dynamic storage
- Need pointers
- never run out of room -)
- must allocate storage new
- must also deallocate storage delete
- failure to deallocate storage memory leak
- constructors/destructors were designed to
facilitate memory management
91Linked list
- Dynamic memory used to store data (usually in a
node!) - node usually stores data and pointer to next node
(at least) - can be singly linked, doubly linked, circularly
linked - can have dummy header node and/or dummy footer
node
92Singly linked list
head
node
node
node
92
93// partial specification implementation for
Node class class Node public friend class
List Node() data(0), next(NULL)
Node(int d, Node n) data(d), next(n)
int getData() const void setData(int d)
friend ostream operatorltlt(ostream ,
const
Node ) private int data Node next
93
93
94// partial specification implementation for
Node class class Node public friend class
List Node(int d 0, Node n NULL)
data(d), next(n) int getData() const
return data void setData(int d) data d
friend ostream operatorltlt(ostream out,
const Node node) out ltlt node.data
return out private int data Node
next
94
94
95include Node.h class List public List()
head(NULL), current(NULL) void insert(int
data) head new Node(data, head) void
delete() Node temp head head
temp-gtnext delete temp Node
getFront() current head return current
Node getNext() currentcurrent-gtnext return
current friend ostream operatorltlt(ostream
, const List ) private Node head
Node current
95
95
96Discussion of List class
- insert actually inserts at the front
- getFront, getNext and current allow us to iterate
through the list. Is there a better way? - Why is List a friend of Node?
- Can we construct Node and List so that friendship
is not required? - Note that deleting an arbitrary element is
tricky. Would a doubly linked list simplify? - Should List be templated?
97List class exercise
- Complete specification implementation, adding
insertAtRear, insertAtFront, insert, deleteFront,
deleteRear, deleteNth, ... - Write a main program that uses List and test
- Re-write Node and List so that friendship is not
required. - Push the envelope template List
- Write an iterator class for List
98List exercise
- Find a solution to the Josephus problem for
inputs n and m - describe a solution, using IntList, to the
problem of arbitrary precision arithmetic.
Compare the speed of your program with bc on
unix.
99Doubly linked list
- Easier to delete an arbitrary element
- more overhead to implement
- more storage
- sometimes use a dummy header node to facilitate
inserting into an empty list and deleting from a
list of size 1. - Can use a pointer to the front and rear,
facilitating insertion at either end.
100 Doubly linked list
dummy
node
node
front
rear
node
number
next
prev
101include ltiostream.hgt class Node public
friend class List friend class ListIterator
Node(int i 0, Node n NULL, Node p
NULL) number(i), next(n), prev(p)
friend ostream operatorltlt(ostream , const
Node ) private int number Node
next Node prev
101
102include Node.h class List public friend
class ListIterator List() rear front
new Node void insertAtFront(int n) void
insertAtRear(int n) bool empty const return
front rear int size() const friend
ostream operatorltlt(ostream , const List
) private Node front Node rear
102
103class ListIterator public ListIterator
(const List list)
front(list.front), current(list.front-gtnext)
void init() current front
void operator() current
current-gtnext Node operator() () const
return current bool more() const
return current ! NULL private Node
front Node current
103
104Doubly linked list exercises
- Complete the spec and implementation
- test the list