Biology DMA 1505

1
Biology DMA 1/5/05
Biology DMA 1/6/2005

• Prepare an entire piece of paper for notes like
  this
• Mendelian Genetics Vocabulary
• Main topics Details, pictures, examples
• will go here will go here

2
allele

• Short for Allelomorph (from Greek allos other
  and morph form).
• Any of a group of possible mutational forms of a
  gene.
• Generally used in reference to one form
  (dominant or recessive) of a characterisitic or
  trait.
• In the tall pea plant Tt, T is the allele for
  tall and t is the allele for short.

3
genotype

• The genetic makeup of an organism.
• Genotype is communicated as a list of the
  alleles for a specific trait in an organism.
• In a pure bred tall pea plant, the genotype is
  TT.
• In a hybrid tall pea plant, the genotype is Tt.

4
phenotype

• The genetically and environmentally determined
  physical appearance of an organism.
• Phenotype is communicated as a description of
  the physical appearance of an inherited genotype.
• The phenotype of TT is a tall pea plant.
• The phenotype of Tt is also a tall pea plant.
• The phenotype of tt is a short pea plant.

5
homozygous

• Having identical alleles for a particular trait.
• Being pure bred for a particular trait.
• TT, tt, RR, rr, AA, BB, OO, etc.

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heterozygous

• Having two different alleles for a particular
  trait.
• Being hybrid for a particular trait.
• Tt, Rr, AB, etc.

7
hybrid cross

• A genetic cross of two parent organisms that are
  heterozygous for a particular trait.
• A cross between two hybrid parents.
• A cross that produces a 31 (75/25) phenotypic
  ratio.
• G g
• G GG Gg
• g Gg gg

8
P generation

• The first two organisms crossed in a genetics
  experiment the parent organisms.

9
F1 generation

• (from Latin filius son)
• The offspring produced by the genetic crossing
  of the parent generation the children of the P
  generation.
• The offspring of a cross between a homozygous
  tall pea plant and a homozygous short pea plant
  T T
• t Tt Tt
• t Tt Tt

10
F2 generation

• The offspring produced by crossing two members
  of an F1 generation the grandchildren of the P
  generation.
• Choosing any two of the offspring of the cross
  TT x tt, the subsequent offspring produced T
  T T t
• t Tt Tt T TT Tt
• t Tt Tt t Tt tt
• F1 F2

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test cross

• A cross performed to identify if an organism is
  heterozygous or homozygous.
• The organism is crossed with another organism
  that is homozygous recessive for the same trait.
  Analysis of the F1 generation will reveal the
  genotype of the unknown parent.

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Is it homozygous or heterozygous?

• f f f f
• F Ff Ff F Ff Ff
• ? ?f ? f F Ff Ff
• f f
• F Ff Ff If all of the offspring are fuzzy?
• f ff ff If 14 offspring are fuzzy and 15
• offspring are scaly?

13
dihybrid cross

• A cross between two organisms that involves two
  different sets of alleles.
• A cross between a tall wrinkled pea and a short
  round pea.
• TTrr x ttRR

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• Tr Tr Tr Tr
• tR TtRr TtRr TtRr TtRr
• tR TtRr TtRr TtRr TtRr
• tR TtRr TtRr TtRr TtRr
• tR TtRr TtRr TtRr TtRr

15
FOIL and dihybrid crosses

• First TTrr Tr ttRR tR
• Outer TTrr Tr ttRR tR
• Inner TTrr Tr ttRR tR
• Last TTrr Tr ttRR tR

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Dihybrid cross practice

• Complete a dihybrid cross between a homozygous
  short heterozygous round pea and a heterozygous
  tall homozygous wrinkled pea.
• Write out the fraction of each different
  genotype.
• Write out the fraction of each different
  phenotype.

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sex-linked trait

• Genetic characteristics that are carried on sex
  chromosomes.
• Characteristics that are generally carried only
  by the x chromosome.
• Red-green color blindness is a common sex linked
  trait. Homozygous recessive genotypes exhibit
  the color blindness phenotype. Males are
  statistically more likely to be affected than
  females.

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• A color blind male is crossed with a normal
  female
• Xn Y
• XN XN Xn XNY XN XN Xn
  XNY
• A normal male is crossed with a carrier
  female
• XN Y
• XN XN XN XNY Xn
  XN Xn XnY

20
incomplete dominance

• Failure of a dominant phenotype to be fully
  expressed in an organism carrying a dominant and
  a recessive allele. The result is usually a
  phenotype that is intermediate between the
  homozygous dominant and the homozygous recessive
  forms.

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Incomplete Dominance

• A cross between red snapdragons (RR) and white
  snapdragons (rr) makes pink snapdragons.
• R R
• r Rr Rr
• r Rr Rr

22
Incomplete Dominance

• A cross between pink snapdragons (Rr) and pink
  snapdragons (Rr) makes pink snapdragons, white
  snapdragons, and red snapdragons.
• R r
• R RR Rr
• r Rr rr

23
Incomplete Dominance

• A cross between pink snapdragons (Rr) and white
  snapdragons (rr) makes pink snapdragons and white
  snapdragons.
• R r
• r Rr rr
• r Rr rr

24
Incomplete Dominance

• A cross between pink snapdragons (Rr) and red
  snapdragons (RR) makes pink snapdragons, and red
  snapdragons.
• R r
• R RR Rr
• R RR Rr

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• TLTL is the genotype for a long tailed cat.
• TNTN is the genotype for a no tailed cat.
• A test cross between a long tailed cat and a no
  tailed cat is performed.
• TL TL
• TN TLTN TLTN
• TN TLTN TLTN
• The genotype TLTN produces the medium length
  tail phenotype.

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codominance

• Both alleles of a pair are fully expressed in
  heterozygous organisms.

27

• A is a dominant allele for human blood type.
• B is a dominant allele for human blood type.
• O is a recessive allele for human blood type.
• A test cross is performed between homozygous A
  and homozygous B.
• B B
• A AB AB
• A AB AB
• All offspring would have type AB blood.

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• A test cross is performed between a person with
  type AB blood and type O blood.
• A B
• O AO BO
• O AO BO
• The offspring would have either type A blood or
  type B blood.

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• A child has type O blood.
• The mother has type A blood and the father has
  type B blood.
• What are the actual genotypes of both parents?
• A ?
• B AB ?B
• ? A? OO

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pedigree

• A diagram setting forth the ancestral history or
  genealogical register.
• A chart that is used to trace the movement of
  alleles through a group of related organisms.

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Biology DMA 1/7/05

• Prepare a piece of paper for todays quiz.
• Number from one to ten.
• Leave ample space for setting up Punnett
  squares. Some of your answers will actually be
  Punnett squares.

33

• A cross is performed between a black guinea pig
  and a white guinea pig. Some time passes. Five
  baby guinea pigs are born, and they all end up
  with black fur.
• What is the genetics term that is used to
  describe both the mother and father guinea pigs?
• What is the genetics term that is used to
  describe the physical appearance of all five of
  the baby guinea pigs?
• Based on the physical appearance of all of the
  babies, what is the genetics term that describes
  the allele for black fur?

34

• Two of the second generation black guinea pigs
  of opposite gender are placed in a separate cage
  and given some privacy. Some time passes. Eight
  babies are born. Five of the babies have black
  fur and three have white fur.
• What is the genotype of both parents for the
  second generation? (write two answers)
• What is the genotype of the three white babies?
• What is the correct genetics terminology for
  second generation?

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A
B
C
F
D
E

• 7. What are the genotypes for the labeled guinea
  pigs? This pedigree is set up to display
  phenotypes (fur color).

36

• Two pink flowering roses are crossed. The seeds
  are harvested and planted. Several years later,
  three types of offspring are obvious
• many pink roses, a few white
• roses, and a few red roses.
• In general, red roses are
• much more common than
• white roses. Create a Punnett
• square that illustrates this
• cross.
• 9. What genetics term describes
• the inheritance of the alleles in this case of
  the pink roses?

37

• Penelope has type AA blood.
• She has several boyfriends scattered around the
  country Theseus, with type AB blood, Daedalus
  with type OO blood, and Agamemnon with type BB
  blood.
• Penelope gives birth to Icarus, who has type A
  blood. Icarus marries Hailey, who has type B
  blood. They have four kids Stan (AB), Dan (O),
  Fran (A), and Hailu (B).
• Who was the father of Icarus?

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Biology DMA 1/10/05

• How is codominance different from incomplete
  dominance?

39
Biology DMA 1/13/05

• Prepare an entire piece of paper for notes like
  this
• 1800 1850 1900 1950 2000
• 1825 1875 1925 1975
• Modern Genetics Vocabulary
• Main topics Details, pictures, examples
• will go here will go here

40
gene

• A hereditary unit that occupies a specific
  location (locus) within the chromosome.
• A unit that has one or more specific effects on
  the phenotype of an organism.
• A unit that can mutate to various allelic forms.
  

41
epistasis

• The nonreciprocal interaction of non-allelic
  genes.
• A situation arising when expression of one type
  of gene masks or covers up the expression of
  another gene.

42

• Agouti (A) is dominant to albino (a).
• Agouti (B) is dominant to black (b).

43

• Possible genotypes and phenotypes
• AABB
• AABb
• AAbb
• AaBB
• AaBb
• Aabb
• aaBB
• aaBb
• aabb

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AaBb x AaBb

• AB Ab aB ab
• AB AABB AABb AaBB AaBb
• Ab AABb AAbb AaBb Aabb
• aB AaBB AaBb aaBB aaBb
• ab AaBb Aabb aaBb aabb

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lethal allele

• An allele that is lethal to the organism in a
  homozygous form. Heterozygous forms do not
  display the lethal allele. It produces 21
  phenotypic ratios.

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The Case of the Tailless Cats

• Mm x Mm
• M m
• M MM Mm
• m Mm mm

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Gregor Mendel

• Working with pea plants,
• Mendel discovered
• dominant and recessive
• traits are passed from one
• generation to another in
• predictable ratios. He published his results in
• the paper Versuche über Pflanzen-Hybriden
• in 1865.

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34 years pass
50
Independent Research Confirms Mendels Discoveries

• Hugo de Vries works with primroses.
• 1900
• Carl Correns works with peas.
• 1900
• Erich von Tschermak works with
• peas and primroses.
• 1900

51
Chromosomes

• Nettie Stevens makes the connection between
  gender and the X and Y chromosomes.
• 1905
• Edmund Beecher Wilson independently makes the
  same connection.
• 1905

52
Thomas Hunt Morgan

• 1910
• Studied the genetics of Drosophila.
• Found a white eyed mutant male.
• Identified a connection between sex
• and genetic characteristics.

53
Hermann J. Muller

• 1927
• Used X-rays to induce mutations in
• Drosophila. Created techniques that allow
  scientists to make
• mutations in test organisms.
• Extra credit what award did
• Muller receive for his work?

54
Biology DMA 1/18/2005

• Why would a geneticist find it useful to study
  mutated organisms?
• Hint Compare and Contrast

55

• Dig out these notes, were continuing them today
• 1800 1850 1900 1950 2000
• 1825 1875 1925 1975
• Modern Genetics Vocabulary
• Main topics Details, pictures, examples
• will go here will go here

56
Fred Griffiths Experiment 1928
Proposed that some unknown principle was able
to transform the harmless R strain of Diplococcus
into the killer S strain.
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Barbara McClintock

• 1931
• Working with maize plant mutants created with
  X-rays, discovers jumping genes.
• This upsets the notion that genes occupy fixed
  locations within all cells of an organism.

"I know my corn plants intimately, and I find it
a great pleasure to know them."
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crossing-over

• A process where ends of homologous chromosomes
  are swapped and exchanged during meiosis.

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One Gene/One Enzyme Hypothesis

• 1941
• George Beadle and Edward Tatum irradiate
  Neurospora crassa, a haploid bread mold, and
  study the growth of the mutants on special media
  solutions.

60

• Bread mold mutants are grown in broths missing
  one of the 20 essential amino acids.
• Mold that fails to grow in a broth
• is identified as having a mutation that prevents
  the formation of an enzyme.

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The Transforming Principle 1944

• "Assuming that the sodium desoxyribonucleate and
  the active principle are one and the same
  substance, then the transformation described
  represents a change that is chemically induced
  and specifically directed by a known chemical
  compound. If the results of the present study
  on the chemical nature of the transforming
  principle are confirmed, then nucleic acids
  must be regarded as possessing biological
  specificity...."

Oswald Avery
Maclyn MacLeod
Colin MacLeod
62
Chargaffs Rule 1950

• Erwin Chargaff noticed there is a
• 11
• ratio of
• adenine to thymine
• and
• guanine to cytosine
• in DNA.

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An Important Picture

• Sodium deoxyribose nucleate from calf thymus,
  Structure B, Photo 51, taken by Rosalind E.
  Franklin 1951

64
1952

• Alfred Hershey and Martha Chase use
  radioisotopes of sulfur and phosphorus to confirm
  that DNA is the molecule involved in heredity.

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The Hershey/Chase Blender Experiment
66
An Important Lab Report
James Watson Francis Crick
67
deoxyribonucleic acid

• A nucleic acid polymer comprised of nucleotides
  the sugar deoxyribose joined to a phosphate group
  and one of the nitrogenous bases adenine,
  thymine, guanine, and cytosine.
• DNA

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Exploring the Way Life WorksAnswer these
questions on your own paper.

• Which parts of a nucleotide form the backbone of
  the DNA molecule? (4.5)
• In genetics, what is a transformation? (4.5)
• How is a nucleotide different from a gene? (4.5)
• What is a complementary sequence? (4.6)
• Which bases form pairs? (4.6)
• What holds these pairs together? (4.6)
• What is a helix and what causes DNA to have a
  double helix? (4.7)
• What functions are provided to DNA by the double
  helical form? (4.7)

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Exploring the Way Life WorksAnswer these
questions on your own paper. (Yes, the same paper
from 1/18.)

• 9. What happens to DNA before Mitosis or Meiosis?
  (4.8)
• 10. What characteristic of the form of DNA allows
  it to make two perfect copies of itself? (4.8)
• 11. What term used by scientists refers to DNA
  copying itself ? (4.8)
• 12. Why is it inaccurate to say that DNA copies
  itself, as I have done in the two previous
  questions? (4.9)
• 13. How fast is DNA replicated? (4.9)
• 14. Why are enzymes important for replication?
  (4.9)
• 15. How many polymerase enzymes are required for
  replication and what do they do? (4.9)
• 16. What process and organelle produces the ATP
  required for replication? (review from this
  semester)

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Exploring the Way Life WorksAnswer these
questions on your own paper. (Yes, the same paper
from 1/18 and 1/19.)

• 17. How do scientists make copies of a piece of
  DNA? What is the technical name for this
  process? (4.10)
• 18. What is PCR and how does it work? (4.10)
• 19. What are VNTRs and how are they used by
  scientists? (4.10)
• 20. How do restriction enzymes work? (4.10)
• 21. Create an analogy for how gel electrophoresis
  works. (4.10)
• 22. How were PCR and DNA fingerprinting used to
  identify the heart of Dauphin Louis XVII? (4.10)
• 23. How do organisms correct mistakes or damaged
  nucleotides in DNA? (4.11)
• What are three changes that can happen to DNA due
  to a mutation? (4.12)
• How is RNA different from DNA? Compare and
  Contrast (4.13, 5.8)

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Biology DMA 1/20/2005

• Prepare a piece of paper for todays lab
  activity on DNA Replication.
• There will be numbered procedural steps today
  labeled as step .
• There will be questions to answer today labeled
  as question . There are six questions.

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Replication Lab

• Question 1 What are the four nucleotide bases
  that make up DNA?
• Step 1 Choose one person for your partner.
  Move so that you can work next to them. Everyone
  writes the answers on their own papers. There
  are no shared answer papers.
• Step 2 Pick up the following amounts and kinds
  of paper clips 14 blue, 14 white, 9 red, and 9
  green.

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Replication Lab

• Blue represents adenine, white represents
  thymine, red represents cytosine, and green
  represents guanine.
• Step 3 Use the appropriate paper clips to make
  the following strand of DNA
• A A G C T T A T G G
• Question 2 What is the complementary strand of
  DNA for the chain you just made?

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Replication Lab

• Step 4 Make the complementary strand out of
  the appropriate paper clips.
• Step 5 Match up the complementary bases so
  that you have created a double strand. This is a
  model of a portion of the gene for human growth
  hormone (hGH).

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Replication Lab

• Step 6 Open the hGH DNA as shown
• A A G C
• T T A T G G
• A T A C C
• A
• T T C G

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Replication Lab

• Step 7 Using the remaining paper clips, start
  making new strands of DNA that will complement
  the two strands you are separating. Continue
  until you have two new hGH DNA molecules.
• Question 3 What differences are there between
  the two genes?
• Question 4 What characteristics of the form of
  DNA affect its ability to replicate?

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Replication Lab

• Question 5 What effect does a mutation have on
  replication?
• Step 8 Disassemble one of the two hGH genes.
• Step 9 Disassemble the complementary strand
  that you made earlier.

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Replication Lab

• Step 10 The remaining DNA is exposed to
  harmful UV radiation from a tanning booth,
  causing a mutation. Change the second adenine
  into cytosine. Make the appropriate paperclip
  switch.
• Step 11 Make the complementary DNA that will
  bind to this mutated gene.
• Step 12 Replicate the mutated gene.

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Replication Lab

• Question 6 How will replication lead to the
  spread of this gene throughout a number of new
  cells?
• Step 13 Disassemble all of the paperclips and
  put them back in the container.

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Biology DMA 1/24/2005

• Read 5.4 How Orders Translate into Assembled
  Boxes of Donuts in Exploring the Way Life Works.
• There are four different nucleotides in DNA
  (A,T,?, and ?). There are 20 different amino
  acids used to build proteins.
• How many different 3 nucleotide codes are
  possible?
• One three letter code means start and three
  codes mean stop. Each amino acid has more than
  one code. How many codes would each amino acid
  have?

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AAUGGCAUAGGCACCACGCUCGGACGUGUAGGUAGCCGAGGAGGACCAG
GAGUAUG
Transcription/Translation Lab

• Prepare an entire piece of paper for notes like
  this
• From Genes to Proteins
• Main topics Details, pictures, examples
• will go here will go here

82
ribonucleic acid
AAUGGCAUAGGCACCACGCUCGGACGUGUAGGUAGCCGAGGAGGACCAG
GAGUAUG

• A nucleic acid made from the sugar ribose, a
  phosphate molecule, and a nitrogenous base
  (adenine, uracil, guanine, and cytosine).
• mRNA the type of ribonucleic acid that carries
  the message from the DNA in the nucleus to the
  ribosome in the cytoplasm.
• tRNA the type of ribonucleic acid that gathers
  amino acids during protein synthesis.
• rRNA the type of ribonucleic acid that is found
  in the structure of the ribosome.

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codon
AATGGCATAGGCACCACGCTCGGACGTGTAGGTAGCCGAGGAGGACCAG
GAGTATGAA

• A sequence of three nucleotide bases in a strand
  of DNA that is the code for one of the twenty
  amino acids used to construct proteins.
• A start codon signals the beginning of the new
  protein to the ribosome.
• A stop codon signals the end of a complete
  protein.

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Transcription

• AT
• AT
• AT
• TA
• GC
• GC
• CG
• TA
• CG
• GC
• CG
• AT
• GC
• AT
• Cell Nucleus

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Transcription

• AT
• AT
• A T
• T A
• G C
• G C
• C G A C G G T C G A
• T
• G C
• C A
• G C T
• Cell Nucleus

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Transcription

• AT
• AT
• A T
• T A
• G C
• G C
• C G A C G G T C G A
• T C U G C C A G C U
• G C
• C A
• G C T
• Cell Nucleus

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Transcription

• AT
• AT
• AT
• TA
• GC
• GC
• CG
• TA
• CG
• GC
• CG
• AT
• GC C U G C C A G C U
• AT
• Cell Nucleus

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Translation

• tRNA U C G
• rRNA
• mRNA C U G C C A G C U etc.
• rRNA
• Ribosome
• Linked amino acids

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Transcription/Translation Lab Codes

• Proline CCG red starburst
• Glycine CAA yellow starburst
• Histidine CAU orange starburst
• Start AUG
• Stop UAA
• Uracil U red mm
• Thymine T brown/green mm
• Guanine G yellow mm
• Cytosine C blue mm
• Adenine A orange mm

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Transcription/Translation Lab

• On a piece of paper, draw a nucleus and a
  ribosome.
• Using the appropriate materials, create the
  following strand of DNA in the nucleus TACGTAGTT
  GTAATT
• Using the appropriate materials, create the
  strand of complementary mRNA.
• Move the mRNA through the ribosome and assemble
  the protein.

91
Transcription/Translation Lab

• Using the appropriate materials, create the
  following strand of DNA in the nucleus TACGTTGTA
  GGCATT
• Using the appropriate materials, create the
  strand of complementary mRNA.
• Move the mRNA through the ribosome and assemble
  the protein.

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Transcription/Translation Lab

• Using the appropriate materials, create the
  following strand of DNA in the nucleus TACGTAGGC
  GTTATT
• A mutation occurs. Delete .
• Using the appropriate materials, create the
  strand of complementary mRNA.
• Move the mRNA through the ribosome and assemble
  the protein.

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Biology DMA 2/10/2005

• What is a system?
• List three examples of systems.

94
Biology DMA 1/5/05
Cells as Systems

• Prepare an entire piece of paper for notes like
  this
• Cells as Systems
• Main topics Details, pictures, examples
• will go here will go here
• Summary A summary, as directed, will
• go here

95
Match the organelle or cellular structure with
the correct cellular process

• Nucleus Photosynthesis
• Cell membrane Diffusion
• Chloroplast Translation
• Vacuole Protection
• Ribosome Replication
• Mitochondria Movement of molecules
• Cell wall Storage
• Cytoplasm Respiration
• Transcription

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Carbohydrate Synthesis/Use System

• Solar energy
• Atmosphere
• Soil
• Chloroplast
• (photosynthesis) Cell Membrane
• (diffusion)
• Cytoplasm
• (molecule movement)
• Mitochondria
• (respiration) Associated molecules
• ATP C6H12O6 O2 CO2
• Phosphate H2O ADP

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Protein Synthesis System

• Nucleus
• (control) Ribosome
• (translation)
• Cytoplasm
• (molecule movement)
• Associated molecules
• mRNA DNA tRNA
• amino acids rRNA

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Replication System

• Chloroplast (photosynthesis) Cell
  Membrane
• (diffusion)
• Nucleus
• (control/replication) Ribosome
• (translation)
• Mitochondria Cytoplasm
• (respiration) (molecule movement)
• Vacuole Associated molecules
• (storage) glucose mRNA DNA tRNA ATP
• amino acids rRNA CO2 H2O O2

99
Works Cited

• Felluga, Dino. Undergraduate Guide to Literary
  Theory. 17 Dec. 1999. Purdue University. 15 Nov.
  2000 html.
• Denver Plants.com Shedding some light on your
  growing. 2003. nSnare Digital Media. 8 Jan.
  2005. .
• Science, Tobacco, and You. 2005. Florida State
  University Research Foundation, Inc. 10 Jan.
  2005. .
• Atkins, David L. Color Blindness. 16 Dec. 1998.
  George Washington University. 10 Jan. 2005.
  ind.html.
• Got Pets Online.com. 2005. GotPetsOnline.com.
  7 Jan. 2005. .
• Online Biology Book Farrabee
• Profiles in Science National Library of Medicine.
  6 Aug. 2004. U.S. National Library of Medicine.
  15 Jan. 2005. .
• LaMunyon, Craig W. PCB 4522/6446 Molecular
  Genetics. 2001. Dakotacom. 15 Jan. 2005.
  MolGenSyl.html.
• Nobelprize.org. 14 Dec. 2004. The Nobel
  Foundation. 15 Jan. 2005.
  .
• Lasker Foundation.
• Harden, Victoria A. Office of NIH History. 2004.
  Department of Health and Human Services. 15 Jan.
  2005. .
• Mead, Cliff, Tom Hager, Chris Petersen and Ryan
  Wick. Linus Pauling and the Race for DNA a
  Documentary History. Special Collection, The
  Valley Library, Oregon State University. 15 Jan.
  2005. llections/coll/pauling/dna/index.html.