TWENTIETH CENTURY PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT

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TWENTIETH CENTURY PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT
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MODERN PHYSICAL EDUCATION

• 1893Thomas Wood"The great thought in physical
  education is not the education of the physical
  nature, but the relation of physical training to
  complete education, and then the effort to make
  the physical contribute its full share to the
  life of the individual, in environment, training,
  and culture."

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LUTHER GULICK
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LUTHER GULICK

• YMCA Training School (1887-1900)
• Director of Physical Training for New York City
  Public Schools (1903-1908)
• 1903Public Schools Athletic League in New York
• Class athleticstrack and field basketball
  baseball
• Athletic badge testsdash broad jump pull-ups
• Interschool athleticsMadison Square Garden

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LUTHER GULICK

• Jesse Bancroft served as Assistant Director for
  physical training in New York
• Elizabeth Burchenal directed the Girls' Branch of
  the Public Schools Athletic League, which
  featured folk dancing
• 1906Playground Association of America
• 1913Campfire Girls
• Play was the most important educational aspect

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THOMAS WOOD
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THOMAS WOOD

• 1891-1901Stanfordphysical education and health
  undergraduate curricula established
• 1901-1932Teachers Collegephysical education and
  health undergraduate and graduate curricula
  (1927moved into health education)
• Emphasized educational goals through "natural
  activities"sports, games, dances, aquatics,
  arts, and recreation.
• 1927The New Physical Education with Rosalind
  Cassady

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CLARK HETHERINGTON
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CLARK HETHERINGTON

• Stanford under Wood (1893-1896student and
  instructor)
• Clark University under G. Stanley
  Hallchild-study and developmentalism
• 1900-1910Missouririd athletics of abuses
  (supported women's activities)
• 1923-1929New York Universityphysical education
  curriculum
• 1929-1938Stanford

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CLARK HETHERINGTON

• Play was a child's chief business in life
• Stressed attainment of educational goals in
  physical activities
• 1910Four phases of the educational process
• Organic education
• Psychomotor education
• Character education
• Intellectual education

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JAY NASH
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JAY NASH

• New York University (1926-1953)
• Influenced by Hetherington
• Recreationpart of total life experiences for all
  ages
• Emphasis on carry-over sports

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JESSE WILLIAMS
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JESSE WILLIAMS

• Teachers College of Columbia University
  (1919-1941)
• Expanded Wood's ideas of physical education as
  part of education, i.e., social education (John
  Dewey), unified whole, and living in a democratic
  society
• "Education through the physical"
• Physical development is a means to an end
  (educational objectives)

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THE NEW PHYSICAL EDUCATORS
 
     
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THE NEW PHYSICAL EDUCATORS
 
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CHARLES MCCLOY
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CHARLES MCCLOY

• YMCA22 years of service at home and abroad
• University of Iowa (1930-1954)
• Organic unityphysical dimensionthe major aspect
  of the whole being
• Education of the physical
• Educational objectivessecondary to the
  development of the physical
• Measurementto develop skill and strength

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PLAYGROUND MOVEMENT

• Colonial amusementsPuritan work ethic
• First playgrounds in urban settings
• 1880sBostonsand boxeslater in schools
• 1890sNew York (Central Park), Boston, and
  Chicago provided green space for the upper class
  opened playgrounds for others
• 1894ChicagoJane Addams' Hull Houseone of
  several settlement houses where play
  opportunities were provided for children

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PLAYGROUND MOVEMENT

• Commonalities of early playgrounds
• Preadolescent children
• Summer months initially
• Outdoor equipment
• In urban (populated) areas
• Philanthropic support (donated land) later
  cities financed
• Supervisors were mothers and police

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PLAYGROUND MOVEMENT

• South Park in Chicagofields, gymnasium, and
  other activity spaces
• Sport was used as a means of social control for
  the assimilation of immigrants' cultures and the
  socialization of American youth
• Began with playgrounds for children and
  transitioned into recreation for all
• 1906Playground Association of America
• 1906Boys' Clubs of America

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PLAYGROUNDS TO RECREATION

• 1910Boy Scouts of America
• 1911Playground and Recreation Association of
  America
• 1912Girl Scouts
• 1913Campfire Girls of America
• 1930National Recreation Association
• 1965National Recreation and Park Association
• Clark HetheringtonThe Normal Course in Playto
  train recreation workers

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RECREATION MOVEMENT

• Depressionincreased leisure timesoftball and
  bowling
• Industrial Recreation1940s facilities and
  equipment provided for leisure time usage by
  workerssoftball, bowling, and basketball
• 1950sbeginning of outdoor education
  movementhiking, camping, and backpacking

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FITNESS

• 1965Lifetime Sports Foundationcarry-over sports
  to play throughout life
• Archery
• Bowling
• Badminton
• Golf
• Tennis
• 1970sFitness boomjogging tennis racquetball
  aquatic sports

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ORGANIZED YOUTH SPORTS

• 1920sAmerican Legion baseball
• 1930Pop Warner FootballJoe Tomlin
• 1939Little League BaseballCarl Stoltz
• 1950Biddy BasketballJoe Archer
• 1950AAU age-group swimming later wrestling,
  skiing, and track and field
• 1967AAU Junior Olympics

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PHYSICAL FITNESS

• 1953Results of the Kraus-Weber Minimal Muscular
  Fitness Test 58 of U.S. youth failed one or
  more items, while 9 of the European youth failed
  (tested flexibility)
• On stomachRaise legs (10 seconds each)
• On stomachRaise upper body
• On backRaise legs
• Straight leg sit-up
• Bent-knee sit-up
• Touch toes

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PHYSICAL FITNESS

• 1956President Eisenhower through an Executive
  Order established the President's Council on
  Youth Fitness as an outgrowth of the President's
  Conference on Physical Fitness
• 1956AAHPER Fitness Conference
• June 1 -7, 1958National Fitness Week

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PHYSICAL FITNESS

• 1957AAHPER's National Research Council developed
  the AAHPER Youth Fitness Test
• Pull-ups (boys)
• Flexed-arm hang (girls)
• Sit-ups
• Shuttle run
• Standing broad jump
• 50-yard dash
• 600-yard run-walk
• Softball throw

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PHYSICAL FITNESS

• 1958Operation Fitness sponsored by AAHPER to
  stimulate fitness nationally
• 1958Results of the AAHPER Fitness Youth Test
  showed poor performance by youth (8500 boys and
  girls tested in grades 5-12)

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PHYSICAL FITNESS

• 1961President's Council on Youth Fitness
  published the "Blue Book" with suggestions for a
  school-centered program
• Identify the physically underdeveloped student
  and work to improve
• Provide at least 15 minutes of vigorous activity
  daily for all
• Use valid fitness tests to determine abilities
  and evaluate progress

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PHYSICAL FITNESS

• 1963President Kennedy changed name to the
  President's Council on Physical Fitness
• 1965Retesting of youth with AAHPER Youth Fitness
  Test showed improvement in students' fitness
  levels
• 1968Aerobics (Kenneth Cooper)
• male 30 points per week
• female 24 points per week
• 1974Retesting of youth with AAHPER Youth Fitness
  Test showed no overall improvement in fitness
  levels since 1965

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PHYSICAL FITNESS

• 1981AAHPERD Lifetime Health-Related Physical
  Fitness Test
• Body composition using skin-fold measures
• Function of heart and circulatory system using a
  1.5 mile or 12-minute run
• Strength using bent-knee sit-ups in 60 seconds
  (number done)
• Flexibility using straight leg with arm extension

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PHYSICAL FITNESS

• 1994Physical Best (AAHPERD's educational
  materials) combined with the FITNESSGRAM
  developed by the Cooper Institute
• Aerobic capacity in a one-mile walk/run or pacer
  for young children
• Body composition
• Muscular strength and endurance using curl-ups,
  push-ups, or alternatively pull-ups, modified
  pull-ups, or flexed-arm hand and trunk lift
• Flexibility using sit-and-reach

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ADAPTED PHYSICAL EDUCATION

• Adapted physical education is for exceptional
  students who are so different in mental,
  physical, emotional, or behavioral
  characteristics that in the interest of quality
  of educational opportunity, special provisions
  must be made for their proper education.

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CATEGORIES

• Physical limitations
• Deaf
• Blind
• Hard of hearing
• Orthopedically impaired
• Speech impaired
• Visually handicapped
• Injured
• Low skilled

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CATEGORIES

• Mental limitations
• Mentally challenged
• Learning disabled
• Behavioral limitations
• Attention-deficit disorder
• Emotionally disturbed
• Interrelated (multiple handicaps)

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HISTORICALLY

• Excused
• Corrective or remedial
• Individualized
• Mainstreaming
• Inclusionintegration of children with special
  needs with students in regular classes
• Least restrictive environment

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REHABILITATION ACT OF 1973, SECTION
504INDIVIDUALS WITH DISABILITIES IN EDUCATION

• No otherwise qualified handicapped person shall
  on the basis of handicap, be excluded from
  participation in, be denied the benefits of, or
  otherwise be subjected to discrimination under
  any program which receives or benefits from
  Federal financial assistance.

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PUBLIC LAW 94-142

• The Education of all Handicapped Children Act of
  1975
• Required the development of an Individualized
  Education Program (IEP) for every child with
  special needs, including specifically for
  physical education

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IDEA

• The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act
  (IDEA) has fostered significant changes in the
  lives of children with disabilities and their
  families and in the roles of schools and teachers
  in the education of children with disabilities.
  The basic tenets of IDEA have remained intact
  since the original passage of the law in 1975.
  However, each set of amendments has strengthened
  the original law.

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INDIVIDUALIZED EDUCATION PROGRAM

• Statement of the childs current levels of
  educational performance
• Statement of measurable annual goals, including
  short-term objectives or benchmarks
• Statement of the specific special education and
  related services to be provided to the child
• Statement of the extent (if any) to which the
  child will not participate with non-disabled
  children in regular class and other school
  activities
• Statement of any individual modifications in the
  administration of statewide or district wide
  assessment of student achievement

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INDIVIDUALIZED EDUCATION PROGRAM

• Statement of when services will begin, how often
  they will be provided, where they will be
  provided, and how long they will last
• Statement of transition services needs (beginning
  at age 14) and transition services needed to
  prepare for leaving school (beginning at age 16)
• Statement of any rights that will transfer to the
  child at the age of majority (at least one year
  prior)
• Statement of how the childs progress will be
  measured and how parents will be informed of the
  progress

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MEN'S ATHLETICS

• Socially elitehorse racing, dancing, gambling,
  cards, and yachting
• Baseball (1744England not 1839 in America)
• Cyclinglate 1800s
• Tennis1874 from England
• GolfScotland
• Cricket and croquet clubslate 1800s
• 1891BasketballJames Naismith at the
  YMCA Training School
• 1896VolleyballWilliam Morgan at YMCA

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AMATEUR SPORTS1850-1900s

• Athletic clubs (especially the New York Athletic
  Club)provided sports opportunities for members
  (especially track and field)
• 1879Amateur Athletic Union (1888)"check the
  evils of professionalism and promote amateur
  sport"
• 1912538 athletic clubs and the AAU had 19,000
  members
• Competition offered (and said to control) 40
  sports later 16 sportsespecially basketball,
  track and field, and boxing

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MENS INTERCOLLEGIATE ATHLETICS

• Students promoted, financed, and controlled
  athleticsfaculty and administrators did not want
  to be involved (no standard rules or eligibility
  regulations)
• Rowing1852Harvard over Yale
• Baseball1859Amherst over Williams
• Football1869 (actually rugby)Rutgers over
  Princeton

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MENS INTERCOLLEGIATE ATHLETICS

• Social function
• Winningfansmoneywinningfansmoney
• Recruiting
• Professional coaches
• Newspaper coverage
• Graduate managers
• Walter Camp controlled the collegiate football
  rules committee (1879-1925)

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MENS INTERCOLLEGIATE ATHLETICS

• Control established in colleges
• Injuries property damage class absences rule
  confusion gambling drunkenness
  professionalism commercialism loss of values
• Benefitsimproved health taught values such as
  fair play and teamwork diminished use of tobacco
  and alcohol reduced rowdyism improved
  discipline enhanced school spirit

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• Late 1800sstudents unified various rules of
  sports
• Harvard faculty attempted to control class
  absences and to regulate athletic abuses
• 1882Harvard model with three faculty
• 1885added two students and one alumnus
• 1888three faculty three students three alumni

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MENS INTERCOLLEGIATE ATHLETICS

• 1895Midwestern colleges (Intercollegiate
  Conference of Faculty Representativestodays Big
  Ten)
• Required to be students
• Six months residence for transfers
• Must remain eligible academically

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• Representatives from 13 colleges attended the
  initial meeting in December, 1905, called by
  President MacCracken of New York University to
  investigate the future of football due to deaths
  and injuries, dishonesty, gambling, and
  eligibility in January, 1906, a second meeting
  led to the establishment of the NCAA and the
  reform of football to prevent injuries and
  deaths legalized the forward pass
• 1906National Collegiate Athletic Association was
  established by 28 colleges

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AAU AND NCAA CONFLICTS

• Olympic team selection (1920s to the 1970s)
• National Amateur Athletic Federation1922
• Sanctioning of events
• Certification of records
• 1978Amateur Sports Act

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PROBLEMS IN MENS INTERCOLLEGIATE ATHLETICS

• 1929Savage study of college athletics found
  problems as reported in American College
  Athletics
• Commercialism
• Loss of educational values

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SIGNIFICANT CHANGES IN INTERCOLLEGIATE ATHLETICS

• Faculty controlinstitutional or home rule
• Conferencessave money fewer classes missed
  equal philosophy and size rivalry
• No seasonal coachesin departments of physical
  education to gain faculty status
• Rules of sports standardized and provide national
  tournaments (track and field1921)
• Recruitment and scholarship policiesSanity Code
  (1948-1951)

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ORGANIZATIONS IN MENS INTERCOLLEGIATE ATHLETICS

• National Junior College Athletic Association1938
• National Association of Intercollegiate
  Athletics1940 (only basketball until 1952)

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INTRAMURALS

• Activities among participants within the walls
  of an institution
• Begun in 1913 at the University of Michigan under
  Elmer D. Mitchell
• Initially organized and funded by athletics
• Later, administered through departments of
  physical education
• Today, comprehensive campus recreation
  opportunities are provided within student affairs

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PURPOSES OF INTRAMURALS

• Constructive use of leisure time
• Opportunity to experience success
• Physical fitness
• Mental and emotional health
• Social interaction and contacts
• Esprit de corps
• Promote permanent participant interest
• Practice skills learned in physical education
  classes
• Training ground for future varsity athletes

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INTRAMURALS TO CAMPUS RECREATION

• Traditional intramuralscompetitions in
  traditional team and individual sports usually a
  fairly narrow offering of activities league
  competition is well structured and organized
  requires a solid commitment from participants
• Campus recreation includes non-athletic
  activities (games, crafts, dances, movies, etc.),
  special programs and workshops, open recreation,
  club sports, free play, faculty-staff programs,
  and co-recreation

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CLUB SPORTS AND FUNDING

• Club sportsgroups of students, faculty, and
  staff who get together to share a mutual interest
  in a particular sport or activity European
  concept that spread to this country, clubs are
  self-organized, administered, funded, coached,
  and otherwise maintained
• Funding
• State appropriations (within physical
  education)
• Student fees

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HISTORY OF WOMENS SPORTS

• Colonial period
• Horseback riding dancing fox hunting
• Next 100 years
• Riding walking dancing calisthenics
• Late 1800s
• Croquet cycling hiking (with clothing
  restrictions)
• Tennis1874
• Gymnastics in bloomers

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BASKETBALL

• 1892Smith College (Senda Berenson)
• 1896Stanford defeated California in the first
  intercollegiate game
• 1899Standardized rules
• No snatching the ball
• Could hold ball only three seconds
• Could bounce ball only three times
• Divided court into three areas to limit exertion

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HISTORY OF WOMENS SPORTS

• Basketball
• 1936two-division game
• 1949rover game in AAU 1962 in colleges
• 1970full court game in colleges
• Collegestrack and field field hockey archery
  rowing golf

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HISTORY OF WOMENS SPORTS

• Preferred events by physical education teachers
• Field Dayinterclass play within a school
• Play Daymixed teams competed with a social
  emphasis
• Sports Daywithin own team, competition with a
  social emphasis
• Telegraphic Meetsend scores to a central location

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HISTORY OF WOMENS SPORTS

• Philosophical justifications for the opposition
  of women in competitive sports
• Competition might be physically and emotionally
  harmful
• Undesirable examples from men's programs
• Philosophy of mass participation
• Societal belief of women as homemakers, not
  athletes

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• Participation rather than competition in
  1909about half of the colleges had
  intercollegiate competition, especially in the
  West and Midwest
• Allowed if these conditions met
• Women officials and coaches
• Audience by invitation only
• College-financed only
• No "win-at-all costs attitudefor fun and social
  interaction
• Outside schoolsAmateur Athletic Union sponsored
  leagues and tournaments

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HISTORY OF WOMENS SPORTS

• High schools followed the collegesbut problems
  arose
• Males coached
• Used boys' rules
• Spectators allowed
• Newspaper covered games
• Competition was intense
• All the above meant pressure to win

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HISTORY OF WOMENS SPORTS

• 1917APEA Committee on Women's Athleticsset
  standards and rules of sports
• 1917Athletic Conference of American College
  Women
• Opposed intercollegiate competition
• Emphasis on participation by all
• Aligned with physical education departments and
  teachers

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HISTORY OF WOMENS SPORTS

• 1923Women's Division of the National Amateur
  Athletic Federation
• Opposed international competition
• Favored play days for girls and women
• A sport for every girl, and every girl in a
  sport"National Section on Women's Athletics

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HISTORY OF WOMENS SPORTS

• 1941National Tournament in golfopposed by the
  National Section on Womens Athletics
• Industrial recreation and All-American Girls
  Professional Baseball League

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HISTORY OF WOMENS SPORTS

• Increased Competition
• Olympic development thrust after defeat by
  Russians in 1956 and 1960 Olympic Games
• U. S. Olympic Development Committee in 1961"to
  broaden the base of participation for girls and
  women in Olympic sports and to provide better
  experiences for the skilled athlete"
• 1963-1969National Institutes on Girls' Sportsto
  train teachers and coaches

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HISTORY OF WOMENS SPORTS

• 1966-1967Commission on Intercollegiate Athletics
  for Womenset up by the Division of Girls and
  Women in Sport
• Encourage and govern intercollegiate competition
  for women at all levels
• Sanction intercollegiate events
• Hold national tournamentsfirst national
  tournaments in track and field and in gymnastics

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HISTORY OF WOMENS SPORTS

• 1969Association for Intercollegiate Athletics
  for Women
• Members were colleges
• Educational goals and purposes
• Set standards and policies for women's athletics
• NAGWS game rules
• Separated from NAGWS in 1979
• 39 championships in 17 sports
• Ended June, 1982

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TITLE IX OF THE EDUCATION AMENDMENTS OF 1972

• "No person shall on the basis of sex, be excluded
  from participation in, be denied the benefits of,
  be treated differently from another person or
  otherwise be discriminated against in any
  interscholastic, intercollegiate, club or
  intramural athletics offered by a recipient, or
  no recipient shall provide athletics separately
  on such basis."

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TITLE IX TIMELINE

• 1975Federal government published guidelines for
  Title IX
• 1976Schools and 1978 (colleges) required to be
  in full compliance with Title IX
• 1979Congress adopted its policy interpretation
  of Title IX
• 1984United States Supreme Court ruled in Grove
  City College v. Bell that Title IX was applicable
  only to educational programs that directly
  received federal funding

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TITLE IX TIMELINE

• 1988Congress passed (over presidential veto) the
  Civil Rights Restoration Act, which stated that
  Title IX applied on an institution-wide basis,
  including athletics
• 1992United States Supreme Court ruled in
  Franklin v. Gwinnett County Public Schools that
  plaintiffs could sue for compensatory and
  punitive damages in cases alleging intentional
  discrimination

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TITLE IX TIMELINE

• 1993NCAA released the report of its Gender
  Equity Task Force report that showed that women
  comprised 35 of the varsity athletes received
  30 of the athletic grant-in-aid dollars were
  allocated 17 of the recruiting dollars received
  23 of the operating budget dollars had access
  to 37 of the athletic opportunities for
  participation

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TITLE IX TIMELINE

• 1996Females comprised 42 of the United States
  Olympic team competing in Atlanta they won 38
  of the medals awarded to athletes from the United
  States
• 1997United States Supreme Court refused to grant
  certiorari and hear the appeal of Cohen v. Brown
  University, thus affirming that schools and
  colleges must provide varsity athletic positions
  for males and females matching the overall
  percentage of the student body

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TITLE IX TIMELINE

• 2003Upheld the use of proportionality in the
  three-part test for access to participation
  opportunities
• 2005Permitted the use of a web survey to
  determine if there was sufficient interest to
  support an additional varsity team for the
  underrepresented sex creates a presumption of
  compliance with part three of the three-part test