Energy Issues

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Energy Issues General and Construction

• Lecture 8
• Charles J. Kibert

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Overview

• Energy Terminology
• Energy Consumption
• Environmental Impacts
• Renewable Energy
• Emerging Technologies
• Building Energy Consumption

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Key Energy Terminology

• Energy the capacity for doing work or heat
• BTU, wh, Kwh, cal, Kcal
• Note work force x distance
• Power rate of energy use (1 watt 1 j/s)
• Enthalpy internal energy of a body
• Entropy measure of unavailable energy measure
  of disorder
• Exergy the part of energy that can be converted
  to all other forms how large a quantity of
  purely mechanical work can be extracted from a
  system. As exergy decreases, entropy increases.
• Embodied Energy energy (based on source used)
  needed to extract, produce, install, and dispose
  of a product plus transport energy between stages
• Emergy energy required to make a product or
  service in solar energy starting units. Units
  used by Systems Ecology (H.T. Odum)
• Carnots Law limit on efficiency of a heat
  engine
  1-(Tsink/Tsource) note Ts in absolute degrees

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Flow of energy and matter through a system
Quality is consumed during the conversion of
matter and energy
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The quality of different forms of energy
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http//www.holon.se/folke/kurs/Distans/Ekofys/fysb
as/exergy/exergybasics.shtml
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The actual efficiency of a steam engine operating
with 340 F steam and rejecting energy to the
atmosphere at 68 F is 18. What is its Carnot
efficiency?
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World primary energy consumption patterns
World Consumption Million tonnes oil equivalent
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Oil consumption per capita
Consumption per capita 2008 Tonnes
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Chart of crude oil prices since 1861
Crude oil prices 1861 - 2008 US dollar per
barrel World events
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Major oil trade movements
Major trade movements 2008 Trade flows worldwide
(million tonnes)
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Natural gas reserves-to-production (R/P) ratios
2008 by region
Reserves-to-production (R/P) ratios Years
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Natural gas consumption per capita
Consumption per capita 2008 Tonnes oil equivalent
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Major gas trade movements
Major trade movements Trade flows worldwide
(billion cubic metres)
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Proved coal reserves at end 2008
Proved reserves at end of 2008 Thousand million
tonnes (anthracite and bituminous coal shown in
brackets)
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Transportation and Energy
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Climate Change and Transportation
Grams of carbon equivalent per passenger km
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Energy CO2

• Longer chain fuel, more CO2
• Order Methane Natural Gas, Oil, Coal, Wood (in
  order of increasing carbons)
• CO2 levels at highest point in 160,000 years
• "The combined global land and ocean average
  surface temperature for March 2010 was the
  warmest on record at 13.5C (56.3F), which is
  0.77C (1.39F) above the 20th century average of
  12.7C (54.9F). This was also the 34th
  consecutive March with global land and ocean
  temperatures above the 20th century average.
• Relative climatic stability for 10,000 years-the
  end?
• Note climate system is nonlinear and can switch
  abruptly
• Stabilizing CO2 cut emissions 60-80
• Kyoto Protocol to the UN Framework Convention on
  Climate Change (Dec 1997).

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Kg CO2 per Kwh for various fuels
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Energy Technologies for the Future

• Light-Emitting Diodes (LED) 2x as efficient as
  CFL, last 10x as long, emit only red and yellow
  light.
• Wind energy cheapest energy (3.9 cents/Kwh),
  growing at 25 per year
• Photovoltaics (PV) Price dropping, shipments
  increasing, price needs to drop 50-75 percent ot
  be competitive
• Fuel cells future electricity generation

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Solar PV Prices
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http//www.greenrhinoenergy.com/solar/market/mkt_t
rends.php
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Yield of 900 Kwh/Kwp Berlin Yield of 1800
Kwh/Kwp Dubai
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1998 Forecast of Price vs. Shipments for PV
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U.S. Solar Thermal Collector DomesticShipments
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U.S. Solar Thermal Shipments by Type
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More Energy Technologies

• Fuel Cells
• Convert hydrogen (H2) to electricity, reverse of
  electrolysis
• Byproduct is water
• Solar powered water-splitter
• Hydrogen
• Dominant energy carrier of the 21st Century
• Technology need cheap solar water-splitter
• Natural gas is the bridge to hydrogen energy
• Buildings
• Distributed energy system
• Zero net energy buildings
• Mass produced, site-assembled
• Automobiles
• Battery or fuel cell power

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Renewable and Alternative Power Sources

• Renewables use resources that are regenerated by
  nature in reasonable time (solar, wind, hydro,
  biomass, biomass)
• Alternative use resources more efficiently than
  conventional systems (fuel cells, flywheels)

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Photovoltaics
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• Photovoltaics (PV) or photovoltaic cells are
  devices that convert light into electricity.
• Although there are several photovoltaic
  technologies, the typical cell is a thin
  rectangular or circular wafer made of boron-doped
  silicon sandwiched with a wafer of
  phosphorous-doped silicon. The wafers are wired
  together in modules.
• Thin-film technologies deposit the PV material
  directly onto glass, plastic, or metal substrate.
• Especially exciting are products that integrate
  PV directly into building materials such as
  glass, flexible shingles, and raised-seam metal
  roofing.

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• In 1970 photovoltaic cells cost over 1,000 per
  peak watt of power and were used solely for
  exotic applications such as spacecraft power
  systems. Prices today are under 5 per peak
  watt, and power stations of the multiple megawatt
  range are under development.
• Storage systems for PV arrays provide the owner
  the capability of using the captured energy at
  night or at other off-peak times. The typical
  storage system is a set of batteries sized to
  accommodate the PV input as well as the load
  demand. Additional benefits of a battery storage
  system are
• power is supplied at stable voltages and the
  transient peaks from the PV system are smoothed
  out and,
• (2) transient peak loads coming on and off line
  can be supplied the necessary electrical power at
  the exact time it is needed.

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FPL Desoto County 25 MW PV system
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BIPV - Windows
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BIPV Skylight
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BIPV One Times Square
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Direct Sun to AC via Inverter
300 Watt Ascension Technology Solid State Array
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USF PV Recharging Station
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Wind Energy
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Wind Energy U.S.
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Wind Energy Projects 2006Existing and New
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• The grid-connected capacity of wind energy
  systems in the United States was 1,717 MW in
  1994, almost half of the world's total installed
  wind capacity. TOTAL INSTALLED U.S. WIND ENERGY
  CAPACITY 10,039 MW (10 GW) as of 2006 and 35 GW
  as of 2009.
• World Growth Rate is about 22. Asian Growth rate
  is 48

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• 1 Wind energy systems help the U.S. economy by
  creating demand for a wide range of components,
  including wind electric turbine blades,
  gearboxes, generators, electronic controls, and
  towers.
• 2 There are two basic wind electric turbine
  designs vertical axis machines that look like
  "egg beaters" and horizontal machines that look
  like propellers. The latter comprise 95 of the
  installed utility-scale (larger than 250 kW)
  turbines.
• 3 Hybrid wind/diesel systems are available that
  utilize wind energy generation to the maximum
  extent possible, while still providing reliable
  and economical power.
• 4 Wind electric turbine systems for small-scale
  rural electrification have been in use since the
  1930s and require an annual average wind speed in
  excess of 13 kilometers per hour (8 mph) to be
  economical.

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• 5 Wind energy systems also are available for
  roles other than generating electricity for the
  grid. Water pumping systems are available that
  lift water directly through mechanical means, or
  that generate electricity for electric pumps.
• 6 Wind energy developers are now bidding
  utility-scale projects as low as 3.9/kWh, an
  almost 80 reduction from the costs of the first
  wind energy projects that were installed at a
  cost of 30/kWh in 1981. Many people are
  forecasting that in the next 10 to 15 years, wind
  energy will be the cheapest energy available from
  any source.
• 7 Although some noise is generated by wind
  turbine plants, a 300 kW wind turbine creates
  only 45 dB of noise at a 200 meter distance.

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• 8 The power available from wind is proportional
  to the cube of its speed. By doubling wind speed,
  the power generated increases by a factor of 8. A
  generator operating in 19 kilometer per hour (12
  mph) winds will generate 29 more electricity
  than one operating in a 18 kilometer per hour (11
  mph) wind.
• 9 Approximately 20 hectares (50 acres) of land
  are required per MW of installed capacity.
  However much of the land is actually unoccupied
  and can be used for farming, ranching, and other
  activities.
• 10 Systems range from 24 to 37 meters (80 to
  120 feet) in height to avoid ground turbulence
  and to increase performance due to higher wind
  velocities at altitude.

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Fuel Cells
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A Fuel Cell System
Useful Heat
Clean Exhaust
Fuel Processor
Power Section
Power Conditioner
Hydrogen- Rich Gas
Fuel
DC Power
AC Power
Air

• Electrochemical Process
• Combines Hydrogen and
  
  
  Oxygen
• Produces Direct Current Power and Heat
• By-product into Exhaust

• Static Electronic Switches
• Converts Direct Current to Alternating Current
• Provides Clean Wave Form
• Includes Process Controller

• Catalytic Process
• Mixes Fuel and Steam
• Produces Fuel Cell Gas
• Adds Heat to Process

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Fuel Cell Technologies
1 Phosphoric acid fuel cells (PAFC) have an
acid electrolyte and are the most highly
developed fuel cells. These have relatively
low-temperature operation, around 200C (400F),
produce on the order of 200 kW, and are
commercially available. 2 Fuel cells using a
molten carbonate (MCFC) electrolyte are
relatively high-temperature units, operating in
excess of 600C (1100F). MCFCs are being
designed for larger-scale applications on the
order of 50 to 100 MW. The high-temperature
exhaust gases can be used in a combined cycle
system, creating an overall efficiency on the
order of 80.
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3 Solid oxide (SOFC) electrolyte fuel cells are
also high-temperature devices, operating at 600
to 1000C (1100 to 1800F). At these temperatures
a natural gas-powered fuel cell does not require
a reformer. The solid construction of the SOFC
fuel cell prevents some of the corrosion problems
of liquid electrolyte fuel cells. A variety of 20
to 25 kW SOFC units have been tested, and units
up to 150 kW are planned. 4 Proton exchange
membrane (PEM) fuel cells are well-suited to
mobile applications requiring relatively compact
power systems. The electrochemistry of PEM fuel
cells is similar to that of phosphoric acid fuel
cells. They operate in the same pressure range,
but at a much lower temperature, about 80C
(175F). PEM cells are being used to power buses
and automobiles. Their very low thermal and noise
signatures may make them especially useful for
replacing military generator sets.
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Fuel Cell Technology Summary
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Fuel Cell Characteristics
-
Load
e
o
C

Alkaline
-
-
60-120
H
OH
2H
O 2e
OH
O
2H
O 4e
4OH
2
2
2
2
FIRST GENERATION

Phosphoric Acid

-


-

200
H

2H
O 2e
H
O
2H
O 4e
2H
O
2
2
2
Solid Polymer

-


-

60-100
H

2H
O 2e
H
O
2H
O 4e
2H
O
2
2
2

Molten Carbonate
2-
-
-

650
H
CO

H
O CO
2e

O
2CO
4e
2CO
CO
3
2
2
2
2
SECOND GENERATION
2


Solid Oxide
H2O2- H2O 2e- 900-1000
COO2- CO22e-
O2 O2 4e- O2
CH44O2- 2H2OCO28e-



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Fuel Cell Reliability
RECIP RECIP
TURBINES PC25
FLEET ENGINE
ENGINE 60Kw
80-800Kw 1-5mw
200kW Gri Reliability Study,
90-92 FOR Cogeneration Systems PC25
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Impacts on Air Quality Conventional Generator
vs. Fuel Cell
ROG
CO
NOx
4
lt1
lt1
SCAQMD Measured STD PC25
Average
South Coast Air quality Management District
Standard Rule 1110.2, 15 02, dry
basis Reactive organic gases (non-methane)
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Energy and Buildings

• Buildings
• 30 of U.S. energy
• 40 in other OECD countries
• Lighting 20 of U.S. electrical energy
• Appliances30-50 electrical energy
• Refrigerators 350 kWh to 30 kWh
• Washing machines 400 kWh to 40 kWh

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Possible Energy Levels

• Current U.S. Average Practice 100,000 BTU/SF/yr
  (293 Kwh/m2/yr)
• Improved 50-60,000 BTU/S/yr (146-176 Kwh/m2/yr)
• Doable 10,000 BTU/SF/yr (29.3 Kwh/m2/yr)
• German Housing 15 Kwh/m2/yr (heating only)
• Scandinavian Goal 0 Kwh/m2/yr (heating only)

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Best Practices - Energy

• Location of building(s) versus transportation
• Passive Design heating, cooling, lighting
• Orientation, Massing
• Trade-off Thermal vs. Lighting
• Function of latitude, bioregion, altitude,
  weather, sunlight
• Envelope Resistance Infiltration Control
• Renewable energy system use
• High efficiency heating and cooling systems
  careful design, control systems Factor 4
• High efficiency lighting systems controls
• High efficiency office equipment
• High efficiency appliances

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EPA Energy Star Programs
www.energystar.gov
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ENERGY STAR Label for Buildings

• Benchmarking for Success

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The Benchmarking Score

• ENERGY STAR level 75 or greater (the nations
  top 25)
• Average 50
• From average to ENERGY STAR level 30
  improvement in energy performance

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What Can You Do With the Statement?

• Use in business transactions
• Buying, selling, appraising, leasing, and
  insuring the building
• Contracting for energy, operations, and
  maintenance services

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National Fenestration Council Label
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German Passive Cooling Strategy
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