Title: ETHICS
1IMS5006 - Information Systems Development
Practices
-
- ETHICS -
- Effective Technical and Human Implementation of
Computer-based Systems -
2ETHICS
- Effective Technical and Human Implementation of
Computer-based Systems - Enid Mumford,
- Manchester Business School, 1979, 1983, 1985
- a structured design approach that covers
organisational, administrative and
quality-of-working-life factors and - a participative problem solving
methodology - Mumford (1985)
3ETHICS
- developed through action research
- the socio-technical design view
- - technically efficient
- - social characteristics leading to high job
satisfaction and improved quality of working
life - i.e. effective computer systems require the
technology to fit closely with the social and
organisational factors - means of achieving this is the participation of
users at all levels in the design of computer
systems - ETHICS embodies an ethical position and it has an
explicitly stated philosophy
4ETHICS
good systems design
opportunities and constraints
Technology
People
Tasks
job satisfaction
organisation of work
Organisation
objectives and mission
- new technology provides the opportunity for
change and improvement - distinguish between easy and difficult to
implement changes - job redesign needs to be part of the design task
5ETHICS
- objectives relating to management of change
(Mumford 1983) - 1. future users should play a major part in the
design of new systems - able to influence design of their work situations
- their own job satisfaction needs will be
diagnosed and met - they have knowledge of the information needs and
work problems - they will be committed to efficient operation of
the new system
6ETHICS
- objectives relating to management of change
(Mumford 1983) - 2. enable user groups to set specific job
satisfaction/QWL objectives in addition to
operational and technical objectives - unless these are made explicit and achieved, the
human impact of the new system will be
unpredictable - the new system may have undesirable consequences
with high costs, both human and financial (e.g.
deskilling, routinisation, inefficient operation,
absenteeism, high staff turnover)
7ETHICS
- objectives relating to management of change
(Mumford 1983) - 3. ensure that the technical system is surrounded
by a compatible, well-functioning organisational
system - the design process includes everything that
interacts with and surrounds the technical system - e.g. direct human/computer interaction, the
design of work procedures, individual jobs, work
group activities, roles and relationships within
the functional area, techniques for managing
boundaries of functions and departments
8ETHICS socio-technical design
- the socio-technical design approach acknowledges
that - different individuals and groups have specific
needs, interests and values - these must be met for the successful
implementation of change - job satisfaction
- a good fit between the employee's job needs,
expectations and aspirations and the job
requirements as defined by the organisation
9ETHICS
- a framework of factors for the description and
measurement of job satisfaction - individuals personality, background, education
- the knowledge fit
- the psychological fit
- competence, control and efficiency
- the efficiency fit
- the task structure fit
- employee values
- the ethical fit
10Job satisfaction
- a good knowledge fit
- the employee believes their personal skills and
knowledge are being well used and developed - a good psychological fit
- the employee believes their personal interests
are being catered for - (responsibility, recognition, sense of
achievement, status, advancement) - a good efficiency fit
- the employee believes their financial rewards
are fair, supervisory systems are acceptable,
adequate support services
11Job satisfaction
- a good task structure fit
- the employee believes their set of tasks and
duties meets their task differentiation needs - a good ethical fit
- the employee believes the philosophy and values
of their employer do not contravene their
personal values - if there is a bad fit on any variable(s)
- psychological, efficiency, and ethical fit can be
inproved through changed personnel policies and
organisational design - knowledge and task/structure fit can be improved
through work redesign
12Job satisfaction and job design
- the activities of the workforce are the
activities of the organisation - the operation of information systems should not
conflict with essential business activities - e.g. if sales information is to be recorded,
this should not make it difficult for sales staff
to handle customers sales transactions - is the system too slow?
- are the terminals conveniently located at
counters? - are there adequate terminals?
- is the system reliable and easy to use?
- possible problems lost sales, poor customer
service, low staff morale (Avison and
Wood-Harper 1990)
13ETHICS and participation
- participation as user involvement in systems
design - a process in which two or more parties
influence each other in making plans, policies or
decisions. It is restricted to decisions that
have future effects on all those making the
decisions or those represented by them - (Mumford 1983, p. 22)
- participation may have different meanings for
different groups - e.g. morally right, employee commitment,
management tool, empowerment of employees etc. - the goal should be to provide employees with the
opportunities and skills to redesign their own
work systems
14ETHICS and participation
- participation structure, content and process
- structure of participation
- the mechanisms enabling participation to take
place - e.g. representatives, voting, pressure groups,
spontaneous, direct or indirect (through
intermediaries) - content of participation
- the nature of the issues about which decisions
are taken - e.g. managements jurisdiction, executive
decisions - process of participation
- the acquisition of knowledge for informed
decision making - e.g. learning/training, working relationships,
goal setting, solutions etc.
15ETHICS and participation
- structure of participation
- three levels are identified by Mumford
- consultative
- all users are consulted about/contribute ideas
to the design process but the design task is
carried out by systems analysts - representative
- design groups formed from elected or selected
representatives take design decisions - consensus
- design group members constantly discuss ideas
and solutions with all users
16ETHICS and participation
- Recommended structure of participation for
ETHICS - a two tier structure of a Steering Committee
and a Design Group for each department involved,
and a facilitator - Steering Committee (sets design group
guidelines) - senior managers from departments, management
services and personnel, union representatives - Design Group
- 8-10 members, all interests represented e.g. all
functions, sections, ages, grades (constituents),
and systems analysts (their role is teacher,
adviser and learner) - Facilitator
- an external or internal consultant who is
neutral and has training in ETHICS and human
relations skills
17Socio-technical systems design
set social objectives
set technical objectives
specify social alternatives
specify technical alternatives
match as socio-technical alternatives
rank according to ability to meet social and
technical objectives
consider costs / resources / constraints
select best socio-technical solution
18ETHICS versions
- six stage, twenty-five step version (see
Hirschheim and Klein 1994) - STAGE 1 essential systems analysis
- STAGE 2 socio-technical systems design
- STAGE 3 set out alternative solutions
- STAGE 4 set out compatible solutions
- STAGE 5 rank socio-technical solutions
- STAGE 6 prepare detailed work design
- - implementation
- - systems monitoring
- - post change evaluation
- (see handout Figure 1 Schematic of this
version)
19Step 1 Why change? Step 2 System
boundaries Step 3 Description of existing
system Step 4 Definition of key objectives Step
5 Definition of key tasks Step 6 Definition
of key information needs Step 7 Diagnosis of
efficiency needs Step 8 Diagnosis of job
satisfaction needs Step 9 Future analysis Step
10 Specifying and weighting efficiency and job
satisfaction needs and objectives Step 11 The
organisational design of the new system Step
12 Technical options Step 13 Preparation of a
detailed work design Step 14 Implementation Step
15 Evaluation fifteen step version described in
Mumford (1983) the prescribed text
20ETHICS - 15 step version
- Step 1 Why change?
- discuss existing problems, future demands,
opportunities provided by improved organisation
and new technology - Step 2 System boundaries
- business activities, existing technology,
departments/sections, organisational environment - Step 3 Description of existing system
- a complete view of how the existing system works
- horizontal input/output analysis (inputs /
activities / outputs) - vertical analysis of activities at five levels
21ETHICS - 15 step version
- vertical analysis of activities at five levels
from lowest to highest - 1. operating activities
- what are the most important day-to-day tasks?
- 2. problem prevention/solution activities
- what are the key problems that must be prevented
or quickly solved? - 3. co-ordination activities
- what activities must be co-ordinated within the
system or with other systems? - 4. development activities
- what activities, products, services need to be
developed and improved? - 5. control activities
- how is the system controlled now/ (targets,
progress monitored etc.) - (see pp. 70-71 Mumford 1983 for an example)
22ETHICS - 15 step version
- Step 4 Definition of key objectives
- ignore existing system and focus on the design
areas - - what is their primary role and purpose?
- - what should then be their responsibilities and
functions? - produce a list of key objectives
- - how far do their present activities match what
they should be doing? - Step 5 Definition of key tasks
- what are the key tasks that must be carried out
to achieve the key objectives?
23ETHICS - 15 step version
- Step 6 Definition of key information needs
- what are the key information requirements
associated with the key tasks? - Step 7 Diagnosis of efficiency needs
- efficiency needs can be identified by looking for
variances - a tendency for a system or part of a system to
deviate from some expected or desired standard or
norm
24Efficiency needs and variances
- key variances (systemic)
- deep seated problems that cannot be eliminated as
they arise from the nature of the key objectives
and key tasks, - they often occur at system boundaries, e.g. sales
and production departments have conflicting
objectives in terms of quantity stock on hand - operating variances
- not as deeply embedded, designed into the system
through the way procedures, machines and
activities have been organised, can be eliminated - all staff identify and document variances they
encounter (informal discussions and opportunity
for all constituents to participate)
25Step 8 Diagnosis of job satisfaction needs
- ETHICS gives efficiency and job satisfaction
equal weight - job satisfaction needs to be defined and measured
- ETHICS standard questionnaire is the basis for
job satisfaction diagnosis - the facilitator administers and analyses the
questionnaire - all potential users complete the questionnaire
and are given a copy of the results for
discussion with their Design Group - small group discussions to explore reasons for
results (each member of the Design Group meets
with their constituents) - the Design Group completes an Analysis of Social
Needs form to document satisfactory and
unsatisfactory aspects of jobs and identify
preliminary suggestions for improvement - Design Group must not rush into design though
26Step 9 Future analysis
- a new system must have enough built-in
flexibility to cope with future change - identify and analyse future changes likely to
affect the system within the next five years - kinds of changes
- technological, legal, economic (e.g. product and
labour markets), employee or customer attitudes,
company organisation (e.g. merging of
departments) - potential impacts on the system of these changes
- e.g. Design Groups may need to consult both
external and internal experts
27Step 10 Specifying and weighting efficiency and
job satisfaction needs and objectives
- the key step in ETHICS
- objectives are derived from careful diagnosis by
the Design Group of efficiency, job satisfaction
and future needs identified by the Group - these objectives are the basis of the new system
design - interests of Design Group members, their
constituents, the Design Group as a whole and
other groups within the organisation need to be
reconciled - external groups (e.g. customers, suppliers) need
to be considered - each Design group member ranks the objectives
- meet with Steering Committee, constituents etc.
discussion and evaluation - facilitator has a key
role
28Step 11 organisational design of the new system
- (this step should occur with Step 12 Technical
Options) - identify organisational options
- ways of organising departments to achieve job
satisfaction and efficiency objectives - 3 to 6 options should be identified
- the key objectives and key tasks of Steps 4 and 5
guide this process - - use vertical analysis to identify activities
for the key tasks as well as key skills and
roles and relationships necessary - - oganisational options are different ways of
arranging the five types of activities, the
skills and roles taking into account
technologies as part of Step 12
29Step 11 organisational design of the new system
- each organisational option specifies
- organisation of design area as work groups,
sections, and responsibilities - detailed description of sub-groups and
responsibilities and tasks - description of how these are distributed amongst
individuals and teams - each option is evaluated against the objectives
identified in Step 10
30Job design
- different ways in which work can be organised
- job enlargement one person does a number of
tasks - job enrichment one person does a number of tasks
and uses different skills - task variety, job rotation, developmental aspects
of tasks - Mumford suggests multi-skilled, self-managing
work groups as the ideal - all members carry out multiple tasks, diverse
skills, groups organise and control themselves,
including setting performance and quality
objectives, - scope for multi-skilled work must exist,
- responsible, well-trained employees are
necessary, - there are implications for salary levels and
grading schemes
31Step 12 Technical options
- hardware, software and the human/computer
interface - technical options are evaluated against the
efficiency, job satisfaction and future change
objectives of Step 10 - can create experimental examples (e.g.
prototypes) of different options - a shortlist of technical options and
organisational options - check compatibility of each with the others
- the combined option that best meets the
objectives is selected after discussions between
the Steering Committee, the Design Group(s) and
their constituents - the final choice reflects the careful diagnosis,
objective setting, and evaluation of options by
the Design Group, the broad company view via the
Steering Committee, and the views of the users
32Step 13 Preparation of a detailed work design
- detailed design of information flows, tasks, work
groups, and procedures check for good job design
principles - 1. clear work group/unit boundaries (identity)
- 2. each groups set of tasks is a good mix of
simple, intermediate and complex activities - 3. the work group can solve the majority of its
problems itself - 4. the group is responsible for its work
organisation and co-ordination - 5. the work group is responsible for developing
improved methods and practices for its area of
activities - 6. the work group can set many of its targets and
monitor its performance - 7. the work group can easily identify targets it
has to achieve
33ETHICS steps 14 and 15
- Step 14 Implementation
- the Design group has the role of implementation
group - selection of implementation strategy, e.g. total
change or phased change - planning for the change process activities,
problems, training - discussions with Steering Committee and
constituents - Step 15 Evaluation
- this occurs when the system has been fully
operational for a time - evaluate its ability to meet the objectives use
variance analysis and job satisfaction analysis
tools
34ETHICS good systems design
- Mumford (1985)
- the aim of good systems design is to introduce a
mix of technical and organisational change that
will assist the department, and the individuals
working there, to achieve group and personal
missions - provide the information to carry out key tasks
and assist better control of key
variances - key tasks and key variances are stable
- improvement in efficiency, effectiveness and
job satisfaction requires elimination or
reinforcement of factors that are more easily
changed - the involvement of users in the design process
is the most effective way of achieving a clear
and comprehensive knowledge of the needs and
behaviour of the user department
35Characteristics of ETHICS
- flexible
- socio-technical design is an iterative process
- consensus problem solving approach
- importance of subjective, qualitative knowledge
- is it practical?
- lack of tools, techniques for technical analysis
and design emphasis on examination of values and
ethical concerns - useful for individual systems level only
- does high QWL mean automatic technical quality
and efficiency? - solves implementation problems but less emphasis
on problem exploration?
36Use of ETHICS
- impractical
- - unskilled users cant do the design
- - management wont accept it
- Mumford has used a version for requirements
definition (QUICKETHICS) - ETHICS is flexible and has evolved over time as
experience in its use in different situations has
developed (action research) - Mumford has published many case studies of its
successful use in practice
37References
- Prescribed text
- Avison, D.E. Fitzgerald, G. (2003).
Information Systems Development Methodologies,
Techniques and Tools. - (3rd ed), McGraw-Hill, London.
- Chapters 7.1, 23.1
- Mumford, E. (1985). Defining System Requirements
to - Meet Business Needs a Case Study Example. The
Computer Journal, 28 (2), 97-104. - Mumford, E. (1983). Designing Human Systems.
Manchester Business School, Manchester - See the class readings at the unit web page and
prescribed text for additional references