Scientific Writing: How to write like the prose

1
Scientific WritingHow to write like the pros(e)

• BioG 105
• Cornell University

2
Scientific Writing

• Not creative writingunfortunately
• Can still be interesting
• Should be precise, attention to detail is very
  important
• Aim for hyperdistillation

3
Three main goals

• Clarity
• Completeness
• Insight

4
Follow Directions!!!!

• Enzyme Lab Pages L14-L26
• Appendix D (Lab Report Format)
• Appendix F (Figures and Tables)
• Pay close attention to pages L25-26, Laboratory
  Checklist
• Ask for help

5
Enzyme Lab Report

• Title (2)
• Abstract (10)
• Introduction (15)
• Materials Methods (4)
• Results (20)

• Discussion (22)
• Literature Cited (4)
• 3 sources required
• 1 reserve reading
• Appendices (5)
• 6-7 pages of text
• Not including title page, figures, or appendices

6
Title

• Clear, concise
• Should communicate what you did
• Be specific
• Should identify organisms involved
• Examples of bad titles
• Enzyme Lab
• The effect of various factors on enzyme activity
• The effects of the environment on catalase
  conformation
• Format title page exactly as shown on p. A7

7
Abstract

• Brief summary of all parts of experiment
• Problem investigated
• General overview of methods
• Major results
• Conclusions
• No citations
• Be specific and concise
• Abstract must stand alone
• Write it LAST

8
Whats wrong with this?

• Abstract (partial)
• The series of experiments was designed to test
  the effects of the environment on an enzyme,
  specifically catalase taken from a Raphanus
  sativus.

9
Whats wrong with this?

• Abstract (partial)
• The series of experiments was designed to test
  the effects of the environment on an enzyme,
  specifically catalase taken from a Raphanus
  sativus. We tested how such factors as
  concentration, heat, pH, hydrophobic solutions
  and inhibitors were detrimental to the
  performance of the enzyme.

10
Whats wrong with this?

• Abstract (partial)
• The series of experiments was designed to test
  the effects of the environment on an enzyme,
  specifically catalase taken from a Raphanus
  sativus. We tested how such factors as
  concentration, heat, pH, hydrophobic solutions
  and inhibitors were detrimental to the
  performance of the enzyme. We expected changes in
  temperature, pH, and concentration, as well as
  the presence of inhibitors to have a large effect
  on the enzymes conformation and effectiveness.

11
Whats wrong with this?

• Abstract (partial)
• The series of experiments was designed to test
  the effects of the environment on an enzyme,
  specifically catalase taken from a Raphanus
  sativus. We tested how such factors as
  concentration, heat, pH, hydrophobic solutions
  and inhibitors were detrimental to the
  performance of the enzyme. We expected changes in
  temperature, pH, and concentration, as well as
  the presence of inhibitors to have a large effect
  on the enzymes conformation and effectiveness.
  Using the methods outlined in the Survival
  Manual, we conducted numerous experiments to test
  these hypotheses.

12
Whats wrong with this?

• Abstract (partial)
• The series of experiments was designed to test
  the effects of the environment on an enzyme,
  specifically catalase taken from a Raphanus
  sativus. We tested how such factors as
  concentration, heat, pH, hydrophobic solutions
  and inhibitors were detrimental to the
  performance of the enzyme. We expected changes in
  temperature, pH, and concentration, as well as
  the presence of inhibitors to have a large effect
  on the enzymes conformation and effectiveness.
  Using the methods outlined in the Survival
  Manual, we conducted numerous experiments to test
  these hypotheses. They proved correct as the
  reaction rate changed drastically.

13
Introduction

• Orient reader to your field and put the
  experiment in context
• Assume reader has a science background
• Dont regurgitate the basics, get to the point
• Introduce method
• General overview
• Explain rationale and objectives
• Present and justify hypotheses
• Reference sources for background

14
A note on using references

• Must have a citation for every statement of fact
• Dont simply throw the citation in at the end of
  a sentence, write a sentence that tells the
  reader what you learned from the source.
• What to cite? How to find sources?

15
A sample sentence from a previous students
Introduction

• One would expect to see increased activity for
  higher concentrations of catalase (Karp 1999).
• Why? What did you learn from Karp?

16
Sample sentences from a published paper

• Kosinski (1987) suggested that there was a
  significant difference in motor skills when using
  the dominant versus the non-dominant hand.
  Experience performing a task appears to improve
  the motor skills required for the task (Helms,
  1994).

17
Materials Methods

• Reader should be able to reproduce experiment
  exactly
• Can refer to protocols described elsewhere (i.e.,
  Survival Manual) for sake of brevity
• Must mention any deviations from protocol and
  specific details of your experiment (temperature,
  pH, etc.)
• What steps were taken to be consistent?
• Acknowledge work of others, shared data

18
Results

• When using the dominant hand, the mean reaction
  time for dextrals was 0.223 sec, while that for
  sinistrals was 0.227 sec. (Table 1).

• Quantitative
• No raw data
• Summarize and illustrate findings
• No interpretation or conclusions
• Integrate tables/figures and text
• Point out most important information in text
• Be careful using significant

19
A counter-example

• My groups next experiment was to test the
  effects of high temperatures on catalase
  activity. At 30C, the rate was .195, at 40C, it
  was .186, at 50C, the rate was .137 and at 60C,
  it was .015 (Figure 2).

20
Tables

• Summarize data, no raw data
• Means, SDs, etc.
• Title should allow to stand alone
• What does stand alone mean?
• Belong in section where first referred to, as do
  figures
• Dont forget units!!
• Appendix F

21

• Table 1. Effect of the presence of various
  agents (possible inhibitors or stimulators) on
  the reaction rate of radish (R. sativus) catalase.

It might make more sense to show change in
reaction rate. Think about the best way to
present your findings
22
(No Transcript)
23
Figures

• Can use computer generated figures
• MUST hand-draw standard curve for this lab report
• Figure title should allow figure to stand alone
• Indicate units
• Use to show patterns/trends
• Appendix F

Fig. 16. Mean relative M2 size for each group.
The LOW48 group mean was significantly higher (P
lt 0.05) than all groups with the exception of
TUNDRA and KENAI. Bars are 95 confidence
intervals. See Table 7 for group name
abbreviations. Relative M2 size calculated as
(?( M2 length M2 breadth)) / condylobasal skull
length.
24
Discussion

• Interpret results (parallel structure)
• Support conclusions with evidence
• Discuss all data in results
• Refer back to hypotheses
• Analyze deviations from expectations
• Tie results in to big picture ideas if possible
• Cite literature to justify results and put
  results in context
• Identify sources of error and weaknesses of
  experiment

25
Discussion Sample

• All subjects performed equally when using their
  dominant hands, but there were significant
  differences among individuals when the
  non-dominant hand was used. Furthermore, all
  subjects showed decreased performance when their
  non-dominant hand was used. This supports
  Kosinski (1987) and agrees with the predicted
  outcome. Since this test required typing skills,
  those subjects with typing training may have
  performed better than those without due to their
  prior experiences, as suggested by Helms (1994).
  All subjects were only tested 10 times, and,
  therefore, a single errant response by a subject
  had a large effect on their mean response. This
  could have caused false conclusions to be drawn.
  Future investigations would

26
Literature Cited

• Citing source material is of the utmost
  importance
• Cannot tolerate plagiarism
• See Appendix D, follow format exactly
• McFadden, C., Sacco, T., and A. Plescia. 2005.
  BioG 105 Introductory Biology Fall Survival
  Manual. CBS Digital Services, Ithaca, NY.

27
More on Literature Cited

• Must cite 3 or more sources
• One source from reserve readings or other primary
  literature
• Avoid using only textbooks

28
Appendices

• Raw data in table form (use proper format)
• Show sample calculations
• Neat and orderly

29
A word of warning

• You must write the report completely
  independently.
• Teamwork in writing lab reports is not
  acceptable!
• Plagiarism is a serious issue and will not be
  tolerated.
• Please see the Cornell Code of Academic Integrity
  if you have any questions about academic
  integrity issues.
• The Code is accessible on the Internet at
  http//cuinfo.cornell.edu/Academic/AIC.html

30
Before you turn it in

• Proofread and Spellcheck!
• Have a friend look it over.
• Go over report while looking at L25-L26,
  Laboratory Checklist - Enzyme Lab.
• Ask TAs SPECIFIC questions.

31
Another good source of info

• McMillan, V.E. 1997. Writing Papers in the
  Biological Sciences, 2nd edition. Bedford Books,
  Boston.
• At front desk or find QH304 M16x 1997 _at_ Mann
  Library

32
Walk-In Writing Tutoringat The Knight Institute
for Writing in the Disciplines

• Olin Library 106 Sun - Thurs 7-10pm
• Takton Center, Balch 3343 Sun-Thurs 7-10pm
• RPC 222 Sun-Wed 7-10pm
• Rockefeller 178 Sun - Thurs 330-530pm, 7-10pm
• www.arts.cornell.edu/writing

33
Lab Report Puzzle
Two groups of naive, individually-isolated
squirrels, previously fed only a basic low
calorie diet, were presented with hickory nuts
for the first time. Group One was allowed to
continue under the same conditions while the
squirrels in Group Two could observe an
experienced squirrel feeding. After six weeks,
the experimenter compared feeding times, feeding
techniques, and the metabolic cost of feeding of
the two groups.
34
_____ 1. Only the time actually spent handling
and gnawing a nut was recorded feeding was
considered complete when the squirrel finally
discarded the empty shell. _____ 2. Although
initially both groups required approximately
equal time to eat, only Group Two showed a
significant decrease at the end of the sixth
week. Group Two also exhibited a marked decline
in within-group variability (see Fig.
1). _____ 3. Thus, it would not be surprising to
learn as a result of this study that there is
a relationship between the food handling
techniques exhibited by squirrels and their
success in avoiding being eaten by predators.
MM
R
I
35
_____ 4. Due to the territorial nature of these
squirrels, a particular difficulty was
introducing the naive squirrels of Group Two to
the experienced individual. However, the overall
success of this approach is indicated by several
experimental outcomes. ____ 5. The graph in
Fig. 6 shows that there is a strong linear
relationship between the size of each squirrel in
Group One and the overall proportion of its time
which was spent feeding. _____ 6. While
ecologists commonly study optimal foraging from
an evolutionary perspective (Emlem, 1968
Pulliam, 1974) and ethologists explore social
aspects of the learning process (Alcock, 1969
Herbert and Harsh, 1944), little attempt has been
made to combine the insights from these two lines
of research (Galef, 1976).

D
R
I
36
Remember your due date. Papers are due 15 minutes
prior to closing.

• (Also keep in mind that you have 3 lab extensions
  to use for Enzyme or CP lab report due dates.)

37
The End Any questions?
38
(No Transcript)
39
Fig. 15. Representative images of lateral and
ventral views of the skull for some of the groups
studied. All images scaled to approximately
equal skull lengths. See Table 7 for group name
abbreviations. Note that three specimens have
been included for the ABC group to illustrate the
range of within group variation.
40
Figure 18. Plots of GLS superimposed
configurations for each specimen for lateral (A)
and ventral (B) views of the skull. Lines
connect the landmark points for the consensus
(grand mean) configuration.
41
Figure 99. Schematic phylogeny of the bears based
on analysis of complete sequences of three
mitochondrial genes (Talbot and Shields 1996b)
(left) and RWA tree (right), an UPGMA dendrogram
summarizing cluster analysis of mean scores for
each group on the six lateral and four ventral
relative warps.