Scientific Writing Abstracts, Original Papers, Chapters

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Scientific WritingAbstracts, Original Papers,
Chapters Reviews, and Grants

• Christopher D. Ingersoll, PhD, ATC, FACSM
• Editor-in-Chief, Journal of Athletic Training
• Joe H. Gieck Professor of Sports Medicine
• University of Virginia

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First Things First

• The strength of your idea (content) for a
  manuscript/grant is the most important thing.
• Once youve selected a good idea, then
  communicating it is important.
• Communicating your good idea is what were
  talking about today.

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Important Documents to Read

• Journals see the journals Authors Guide
• Grants see grantors instructions, use their
  forms/format (e.g. PHS 398)
• Free Communications abstracts see instructions
  from conference organizers
• Chapters and reviews see publishers
  instructions

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Outline

• Structure of a Scholarly Manuscript
• Optimizing Scholarly Communication
• Reasons Manuscripts Get Returned/ Rejected
• Helpful Resources

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Structure of a Scholarly Manuscript
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Organization

• Follow instructions
• Include what you are supposed to
• Put things where they belong
• Manuscripts typically contain
• Title page
• Acknowledgements
• Abstract
• Text
• References
• Tables
• Legends to illustrations
• Illustrations

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Organization

• All pages from abstract through illustrations
  should be numbered, often in the upper right hand
  corner
• Sometimes, lines should be numbered

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Title Page

• Titles should be brief within descriptive limits
• Include name of disability if relevant
• Include name of technique or treatment if
  relevant
• Reflect the outcome in the title
• Elevating plasma free fatty acid increases
  forearm blood flow and capillary recruitment
  after a mixed meal

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Title Page

• The effects of, A comparison of, The
  treatment of, and Reports of a case of should
  not be used
• Author information
• Names, credentials of each author
• Name, address, phone number, fax number, and
  e-mail address of corresponding author

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Abstract

• 75 to 300 word abstract should succinctly
  summarize the major intent of the manuscript,
  major points of the body, and the authors
  results and/or conclusions
• Many journals now ask for structured abstracts

• AMA Abstract Headings
• Context
• Objective
• Design
• Setting
• Patients or Other Participants
• Intervention(s)
• Main Outcome Measure(s)
• Results
• Conclusions
• Key Words

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Abstract

• Do not confuse abstract with introduction
• Abstract is summary of whole manuscript
• Introduction develops problem and states purpose
• Do not state, the significance of the
  information is discussed in the article.

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Introduction

• Intro serves two purposes
• Stimulates readers interest
• Outline reason for the study
• Begin with a statement or two to develop problem,
  tell why study needs to be done, and state the
  purpose of the study
• Introductions are usually too long

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Introduction

• Introduction not a place for great detail
• Highlight most prominent works of others
• Put detailed review of literature in discussion
• Identify and develop the magnitude and
  significance of the controversy with brief
  specific statements (referenced, of course)

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Introduction

• Example
• Plyometric exercise is a relatively new concept
  of training that applies the information
  specificity principle regarding the preset
  stretch condition of the muscle before explosive
  contraction1. The effects of plyometric exercises
  in increasing vertical jumping performance have
  been studied experimentally,2,3,4 but no attempt
  has been made to determine if they are more
  effective than isokinetic exercises.

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Body of Manuscript

• Body or main part of manuscript differs depending
  on article type, all have discussion and should
  use headings, subheadings, charts, graphs and
  figures liberally
• Body of experimental report consists of methods,
  results and discussion sections

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Methods

• Methodology is the study of methods, Methods
  is the preferred term
• Begin with paragraph describing experimental
  design, then describe subjects, instruments,
  procedures, and statistical analysis
• Methods should contain enough detail so others
  can reproduce the experiment

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Methods

• Methods used by others to study problems like
  yours should be reviewed and referenced in your
  paper. Reference others methods and reliability
  and validity information. Pros and cons of
  various methods belongs in discussion.

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Results

• Like writing a literature review state your
  facts and reference them. Statistical info is
  evidence.
• Report results by stating conclusions in clear,
  concise statements. Dont use statisticalese.
• Emphasize the meaning of the results, not the
  statistical test used

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Results

• Statisticalese
• Tukey post-hoc testing revealed a significant
  decrease (Plt.05) in perceived pain in groups that
  received cold, TENS, or the combination
  treatment.

• Clearer
• Perceived pain was less in the cold, TENS, and
  combined treatment groups than in the control
  group (Tukey, Plt.05).

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Results

• Reference your evidence for making a conclusion
• There was no difference between the three
  treatment groups (F2,321.09, P.23, d20.09,
  1-ß0.3).
• Cancer patients had higher anxiety scores than
  diabetic patients (t153.62, P.003).
• If you have many variables, they can usually be
  presented more clearly in tables

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Statistics

• Statistics dont indicate or prove anything they
  simply provide you with support for making a
  decision
• Statistical tests dont find differences they
  provide evidence that a difference between groups
  is probably real

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Statistics

• Use P when referring to level of probability
• Use only 2 numbers in P if the first number is
  not zero (i.e., .36 not .364). If the first
  number is zero, continue numbers until first
  nonzero (i.e., .0002 not .00 or .00023)

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Discussion

• Put your results in perspective with your
  expectations and compare your results with the
  rest of the world. Dont repeat or rehash
  results discuss them
• The emphasis should not be on other authors but
  rather on what they reported and how it relates
  to your work
• The greater use of. . .by patients in our study
  agrees with others1,7 who reported. . .but
  disagrees with those4,5 who. . .

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Discussion

• Must address the contribution the study makes
  toward theory
• Another brick in the brickyard is of little
  value it should be placed into the sidewalk of
  understanding.
• Last part of discussion must suggest how readers
  might apply the information presented

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Bodies of Other Types of Manuscripts

• Literature review
• Subsection should reflect areas of related
  thoughts
• Case study
• Personal data
• Chief complaint
• History of present complaint
• Results of physical exam
• Medical history
• Diagnosis
• Treatment

• Clinical course
• Criteria for return to competition
• Deviation from expected
• Clinical technique
• Step by step explanation of how to perform the
  technique
• Why the technique should be used

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Summary

• Separate summary not needed abstract does this.
  List of conclusions at end of discussion is
  appropriate.
• TIP write a summary, compare to abstract, add
  left out info, then throw away summary.

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References/Citations

• Citations in text take the form of superscripted
  numbers. It is placed directly after the
  reference or name of the author being cited. Use
  references liberally. It is unethical to
  represent others ideas as your own.

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References/Citations

• Reference page
• Palmieri RM, Weltman AL, Tom JA, Edwards JE,
  Saliba EN, Mistry DJ, Ingersoll CD. Plasma
  catecholamine concentration is not related to the
  soleus arthrogenic muscle response induced by an
  experimental knee joint effusion. Neuroscience
  Letters. 2004 36676-79..
• Day RA. Scientific English A Guide for
  Scientists and Other Professionals. 2nd ed.
  Phoenix, AZOryx Press199573-74
• Leadbetter WB. An introduction to sport-induced
  soft tissue inflammation. In Leadbetter WB,
  Buckwalter JA, Gordon SL, eds. Sport-Induced
  Inflammation. Park Ridge, IL American Academy of
  Orthopaedic Surgeons. 19903-23.
• Ingersoll CD, Weltman AL, Edwards JE, Tom JA,
  Saliba EN, Mistry DJ, Palmieri RM. An
  experimental knee joint effusion does not affect
  plasma catecholamine concentration. Presented at
  the Annual Meeting of the American College of
  Sports Medicine June 5, 2004 Indianapolis, IN.

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References/Citations

• All statements and ideas of others must be
  referenced. If author(s) not mentioned by name,
  the reference should be placed after the phrase
  or first mention of the idea
• Anytime an authors name is mentioned, (s)he must
  be referenced immediately after his/her name
• Jones21 reported. . .four., not Jones reported.
  . .four.21

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References/Citations

• When referring by name to a work with multiple
  authors do the following
• If two authors, use both names Jones and Smith21
  or Jones Smith21
• If there are 3 or more authors, use the first
  authors name and et al. Black et al.5 reported

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References/Citations

• When reference is at end of sentence, it should
  be after period or quotes
• body.23 not body23 or body23.
• Ideas or results from numerous authors may appear
  in one sentence
• Most people prefer red apples,6,9,21,33 but some
  prefer yellow6,10,21 or green6,9,24,30 ones.

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References/Citations

• Always refer to research and writing of others in
  past tense. Maybe that person has changed his/her
  mind since the article was written.

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Department of Redundancy Department

• Put things where they belong and dont repeat
  them elsewhere. For instance, dont rehash
  results in the discussion section.

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Headings

• Headings should be used liberally as follows
• FIRST LEVEL HEADING
• Second Level Heading
• Third Level Heading. Then sentence

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Page Numbering

• Begin numbering the pages of your manuscript with
  the abstract as page 1 then, consecutively
  number all successive pages including
  illustrations

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Tables

• The purposes of tables are to centralize large
  amounts of data, to save space, and to eliminate
  long paragraphs of forced and redundant text
• Tables must not be redundant of text. Use a table
  or include info in text, but dont do both. Refer
  reader to table, point out highlights, but dont
  ramble on talking about what is in the table.

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Tables

• Dont put information in a table that can easily
  be incorporated in the text
• Ten male volunteers (age 21.3 ? 2.1 yr, ht
  140.3 ? 14.2 cm, wt 93.4 ? 7.3 kg) were
  subjects for this study.
• Readers must be able to understand the
  information in the table without referring to the
  text

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Tables

• Tables should look like this

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Tables

• Identify units of measurement in the most general
  way possible. Include in column header or row
  identifier if possible.
• When a table contains data that have been
  averaged, report the mean SD (or SE)

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Illustrations

• Illustrations are often helpful in presenting
  concepts that are difficult to describe, such as
  testing set-ups, x-ray abnormalities, and trends
  within data.
• Each illustration should have should have a
  legend that describes the illustration and
  emphasizes its important points. A list of
  legends should be typed on a separate page
  following the last table.

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Illustrations

• Photographs, graphs, charts, and figures should
  be of good quality and clearly presented on white
  paper with black ink or a high quality computer
  graphic.
• Usually, do not use color. It costs extra.
• If preparing on computer, do not include frames,
  titles, etc., not used by the journal.
• Usually, one original and photocopies are
  sufficient (unless submitted electronically).

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Helpful Resources

• Helpful texts
• Day RA. How to Write Publish a Scientific
  Paper. 4th ed. Phoenix, AZOryx Press 1994.
• Style manuals
• AMA Manual of Style
• Scientific Style and Format The CBE Manual for
  Authors, Editors, and Publishers

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Segue

• Structure is only half the battle. Grammar and
  style are equally important.

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Optimizing Scholarly Communication
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Parts of Speech and Grammar

• Manuscripts are a collection of paragraphs, which
  are a collection of sentences, which are a
  collection of phrases and clauses, which are made
  from words. Words are classified as one or more
  of the nine parts of speech.

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Parts of Speech and Grammar

• Articles a, an, or the
• Indefinite article
• Definite article
• Nouns words for people, places, things or ideas
• Proper and common nouns
• Concrete and abstract nouns
• Collective and mass nouns

• Adjectives words that modify a noun or pronoun
• Pronouns words used to replace nouns
• Personal pronouns
• Demonstrative pronouns
• Relative pronoun
• Interrogative pronouns
• Indefinite pronouns
• Reflexive pronouns

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Parts of Speech and Grammar

• Verbs
• Adverbs words that modify verbs, adjectives, or
  other adverbs
• Conjunctions used to connect words, phrases, or
  clauses
• Coordinating conjunctions
• Subordinating conunctions
• Coordinating conjunctions

• Prepositions combine with nouns or pronouns,
  usually expressing direction or location
• Interjections words, phrases, or sentences
  expressing emotion

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Parts of Speech and Grammar

• Sentence Try to write in short sentences.
  Usually, they are easier to understand.
• Paragraph Paragraphs are not just chunks of
  text rather they are logically constructed
  passages organized around a single major idea.

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Parts of Speech and Grammar

• Voice Voice refers to the action of a verb,
  which can be active or passive. A verb with a
  direct object is in the active voice. The active
  voice is preferred.

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Parts of Speech and Grammar

• Person Person is the form of a verb or pronoun
  which indicates whether a person is speaking
  (first person), is spoken to (second person) or
  spoken about (third person).

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Parts of Speech and Grammar

• Tense Tense is the form of the verb that
  indicates its relation to time. Inflection (eat,
  eats, eating, ate, eaten) and the use of
  auxilliaries (will eat, have eaten, had eaten,
  will have eaten, etc.) show the tense of the
  verb. Use past tense when referring to events of
  the past, present tense when giving instruction,
  and future tense when referring to events yet to
  occur.

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Parts of Speech and Grammar

• Number Number refers to whether a noun, a
  pronoun, a demonstrative adjective, or a verb is
  singular (book, I, this, was) or plural (books,
  we, these, were). Sentences and paragraphs must
  be consistent concerning number.

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Write Concisely

• Vigorous writing is concise and direct. A
  sentence should contain no unnecessary words and
  a paragraph no unnecessary sentences. Every word
  should be purposeful.
• Write directly. State the conclusion then
  reference it. If the conclusion needs
  amplification, do it following statement of the
  main idea.

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Be as Brief as Possible

• Whatever you write, shortening almost always
  makes it tighter, straighter, and easier to read
  and understand.
• Present your points is logical order
• Dont waste words telling people what they
  already know
• Cut out excess evidence and unnecessary anecdotes
• Look for windy phrases, the most common word
  wasters
• Look for passive verbs and make them active
• When youve finished, stop.

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Keep Vocabulary Simple

• Your prime purpose should be to explain
  something, not to prove you are smarter than your
  readers.
• Dont use words, expressions, or phrases known
  only to people with specific knowledge or
  interest.
• The biota exhibited a one hundred percent
  mortality response (All the fish died).

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Keep Vocabulary Simple

• Use first-degree words. These words immediately
  bring an image to your mind. Other words must be
  translated through the first-degree word before
  you see the image.

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Avoid Overusing Abbreviations

• Most abbreviations, acronyms, and initialisms are
  strongly discouraged in scientific writing. Use
  only abbreviations that are widely known and
  accepted.
• Editors look more kindly on your paper if you
  keep abbreviations to a minimum.

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Prune Empty Words

• Empty words are words that cloud rather than
  clarify meaning.

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Emphasize Facts Not Who Wrote Them

• Many writers unintentionally put too much
  emphasis on names of other writers.

Coppin, Livingston Kuehn4 used the same
procedure as Johnson and Leider10 but found
different results. Coppin et al4 found that grip
strength is significantly decreased immediately
following immersion of the forearm. Strength
recovery returned to normal after 40 minutes and
no increases in postimmersion strength were
recorded. This differs with Johnson Leider10
who stated that they observed significant
strength increase 80 minutes posttreatment.
Controversy exists concerning the effect of ice
water immersion on strength.4,10 Forearm strength
has increased 80 minutes postimmersion10 and
decreased immediately following immersion but
returned to normal within 40 minutes
postimmersion4 in studies using similar
procedures.
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Active vs Passive Voice

• Personal pronouns (I, we) and the active voice
  should be used in scientific and technical
  writing.
• Writing in the passive voice is dry, dull, rigid,
  pompous, ambiguous, weak, evasive, convoluting,
  confusing, tentative, timid, sluggish,
  amateurish, obscene, and immoral.

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Active vs Passive Voice

• Authors sometimes resort to the passive voice to
  avoid the presumed immodesty of the personal
  pronoun I. It is a false modesty.
• Passive voice is characterized by weak verbs. To
  be is a prime offender. Scrutinize every is,
  are, was or were.

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Active vs Passive Voice

• Circumstances sometimes necessitate use of the
  passive voice to avoid absurdities or convoluted
  phraseology. Use common sense.

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Parallelism

• Similar ideas should be presented in a similar,
  or parallel, fashion.

The manufacturer claims the new dynamometer is
more user friendly a verb phrase, has more data
storage capacity a verb phrase, and faster
printing a noun phrase.
The manufacturer claims the new dynamometer is
more user friendly, has more storage capability,
and prints faster.
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Parallelism

• An easy way to check for parallelism is to read
  the sentence repeatedly, each time eliminating
  all but one phrase.
• The manufacturer claims the new dynamometer is
  more user friendly.
• The manufacturer claims the new dynamometer has
  more data storage capacity.
• The manufacturer claims the new dynamometer
  faster printing.

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Reporting Numbers and Units

• Generally, numbers of a single digit (1-9) should
  be written out (i.e., nine not 9). Numbers of
  multiple digits are written in numerical form
  unless beginning a sentence. Exceptions
  addresses, ages, dates, designators (chapter 3),
  figure/table numbers, money, temperature, time,
  time of day, and units of measure.

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Reporting Numbers and Units

• Report numbers to the same precision or one more
  decimal place than what you measured.
• Units must be reported according to the style of
  the journal i.e., English or metric.

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General Hints

• The word data refers to many numbers and is
  therefore plural. Use these and those, not
  this or that.
• Scientists dont find, discover, or prove
  things they observe and report them.
• Forget the rules when writing your first draft.
  Get the concepts on paper first, then write and
  rewrite until the concepts are clear.

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Remember

• You are writing for other people, not yourself.
  You know what you mean. The trick is to
  communicate it to others.

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Reasons Manuscripts are Returned for Revisions

• This happens most of the time
• The description of the approach is too nebulous,
  diffuse, and lacking in clarity to permit
  adequate evaluation
• The authors drew unjustified conclusions from
  their data

• The statistical analysis was incorrect or
  inappropriate
• The paper is so badly written that it is
  incomprehensible
• The need for the study is not established
• General need for clarification

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Reasons Manuscripts Get Rejected

• The study did not address an important scientific
  issue
• The study was not original (someone else had
  already done the same or a similar study)
• The study did not actually test the authors
  hypothesis
• A different type of study should have been done

• Design not adequate to test the stated or implied
  hypotheses
• Practical difficulties (in recruiting subjects,
  for example) led the authors to compromise on the
  original study protocol, e.g.,sample size too
  small inadequate power
• The study was uncontrolled or inadequately
  controlled

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Reasons Manuscripts Get Rejected

• Inadequate protection of human or animal
  participants
• Proposed tests, or methods, or scientific
  procedures are unsuited to the stated objective
• Instrument psychometrics are not adequate
• Poor generalizability (e.g., local study)

• There is a significant conflict of interest (one
  of the authors, or a sponsor, might benefit
  financially from the publication of the paper and
  insufficient safeguards were seen to be in place
  to guard against bias)
• Revisions submitted after deadline

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Rejected Manuscripts
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Writing Hints (Writers Dozen)

• Prioritize Differentiate between the urgent and
  the important
• Write for 15-30 minutes daily
• Record your time spent writing dailyshare your
  records weekly
• Write daily until your writing seems urgent as
  well as important
• Dont finish the literature review first

• Focus on the paragraph
• Revise around key sentences
• Share early drafts with non-experts and later
  drafts with experts
• Learn how to listen
• Respond to each specific comment
• Read your prose out loud
• Kick it out the door and make em say No

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Helpful Web Links

• http//grants.nih.gov/grants/index.cfm
• http//www.research.umich.edu/proposals/pwg/pwgcon
  tents.html
• http//nihroadmap.nih.gov/
• http//www.writing.eng.vt.edu/handbook/visuals.htm
  l

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Questions?