From exercise intention to behaviour and beyond Hagger

1
From exercise intention to behaviour and
beyondHagger Chatzisarantis, Chapter 3
2
Outline

• Recap on theory of planned behaviour
• Limitation of social cognitive theories and
  introducing volitional processes
• Intention-behaviour relationships
• Implementation intentions
• Self-determination theory
• Transcontextual model
• Other pre-decisional strategies
• Continuation intentions
• Decisional balance
• Combined strategies
• Motivational interviewing

3
Applying the TPB to Exercise Behaviour
Attitudes
.30
Intentions
Behaviour
.36
.08
Subjective Norms
.28
Perceived Control
Source Hagger, Chatzisarantis Biddle (2002)
4
Intention-Behaviour Relationships

• However, Intention-Behaviour relationships are
  often not perfect
• What does this mean?

Intentions
Behaviour
.36
Less than 1.00!
5
Intention-Behaviour Relationships

• This means that we often do not do what we intend
  to do!
• Why?
• Intention instability Additional information
  comes to light and we change our mind
• Principle of correspondence Errors in
  measurement of intentions and behaviour
• Intention formation Poorly formed intentions
• Self-schema People with tendency to enact
  intentions
• Volitional and forced intentions Intentions
  based on personal beliefs and others beliefs

6
Limitations of Social Cognitive Theories and
Introducing Volitional Processes

• Intention stability
• Intention stability initially considered a
  technical problem by Ajzen (1985) due to
  inherent inaccuracies in measurement
• More than a technical problem a boundary
  condition and an important property of
  intention (Hagger et al., 2001)
• Stable intentions are better predictors of
  exercise behaviour
• Intention stability therefore moderates the
  intention-behaviour relationship (Conner et al.,
  2000)

7
Limitations of Social Cognitive Theories and
Introducing Volitional Processes

• Scale correspondence
• Intention-behaviour link strongest When measures
  correspond in terms of Action, Target, Context,
  Time (TACT Ajzen, 1985)
• Results in exercise show that correspondence rule
  does not fully explain variations in
  intention-behaviour relationship (Hagger et al.,
  2002)
• Intention formation
• Poorly formed intentions (i.e., vague, ill
  rehearsed) are vulnerable to change because of
  retrieval and forgetting
• Well-formed intentions predict behaviour more
  effectively (Bagozzi Yi, 1989)

8
Limitations of Social Cognitive Theories and
Introducing Volitional Processes

• Self-Schema
• Self-schema are cognitive generalisations about
  the self derived from past experience
• People who rate important characteristics
  relevant to the self highly relevant to the
  exercise domain are considered schematics
• Contrast with non-schematics and aschematics
• Physically active, exercise regularly, keeps
  in shape rated on describes me-does not describe
  me scales and importance i.e., not at all
  important-very important

9
Limitations of Social Cognitive Theories and
Introducing Volitional Processes

• Self-Schema

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Source Sheeran Orbell (2000)
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Limitations of Social Cognitive Theories and
Introducing Volitional Processes

• Volitional and forced intentions
• People may intend to do exercise, but their
  intentions may not be based on personal attitudes
  or reasons for engaging in the behaviour
• People may therefore intend to do something
  because they feel they are forced to (Festinger
  Carlsmith, 1958)
• Volitional intentions are those that people feel
  they want to execute by themselves
• Chatzisarantis et al. (1997) found that both
  volitional and forced intentions predicted
  exercise behaviour independent of traditional
  intentions
• Effect sizes were small so impact was relatively
  weak

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Implementation Intentions

• Gollwitzer et al. (1999) Implementation
  intentions Strong effects of simple plans
• How do we furnish our goals with actions to
  achieve the goals?
• I intend to achieve goal/outcome X
• I plan to do behaviour Z will help me to achieve
  X
• If condition Y arises I will do behaviour Z
• This does not change intentions, but strengthens
  the intention-behaviour relationship

12
Implementation Intentions

• Thus implementation intentions act as a moderator
  of the intention-behaviour relationship
• Under conditions of high implementation
  intentions there will be a strong
  intention-behaviour relationship
• Thus implementation intentions act in a
  post-decisional manner

13
Implementation Intentions

• High implementation intentions result in strong
  intention-behaviour relations

Intention
Behaviour

Implementation Intention
Intention
Behaviour
No Implementation Intention

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Studies Using Implementation Intentions

• Three studies in health behaviour support use of
  implementation intentions in the field
• Orbell et al. (1997) Breast self-examination
• Sheeran and Orbell (1999) Vitamin tablet intake
• Orbell and Sheeran (2000) Function after surgery
• Key findings
• Attitudes, intentions did not change
• Behaviour engagement changed
• Intention-Behaviour relation strengthened
• Studies support the use of implementation
  intentions

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What Does an Implementation Intention Look Like?

• Typically use a pen and paper manipulation

You are more likely to exercise for at least 30
minutes per day in the next week if you say when
and where you will exercise and stick to your
plan. In the boxes below write down when and
where you plan to exercise in the next
week When At lunch time after accounts
meeting Where In the gym at work
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Continuation Intentions

• Chatzisarantis et al. (2004) figured that
  peoples intentions are inadequate
• As we approach a behavioural goal the outcome
  becomes less salient
• Continuation intentions (CI) focus on providing
  intentions to continue beyond the attainment of
  salient outcomes
• CI of Success Plan to continue with exercise
  program if successful in achieving goals
• CI of Failure Plan to continue with exercise
  program if unsuccessful in achieving goals

17
Continuation Intentions

• Goal progress how close a person is to
  achieving their exercise goals
• Results in exercise found CI of success and
  failure predicted additional variance in
  behaviour compared with intentions alone
• Perceived goal progress moderated effects of CI
  of success and failure on exercise behaviour
• High CI success greater exercise engagement BUT
  only under conditions of high perceived goal
  progress

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Continuation Intentions
CI Success
CI Failure
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Intention-Behaviour Relationship

• How else can we strengthen the intention-behaviour
  relationship?

Intentions
Behaviour
.36
Change these!
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How Do We Change Intentions?

• Change attitudes, perceived behavioural control
  to affect decision to exercise before it is made
• Various strategies have been used
• Attitudes Information giving and personalised
  feedback (Armitage Conner, 2000)
• Motives from Self-Determination Theory, using
  autonomy support strategies (Chatzisarantis et
  al., 2002 Hagger et al., 2002b)

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Self-Determination Theory
Type of Motivation
Intrinsic Motivation
Extrinsic Motivation
Intrinsic Motivation
Identification
Introjection
External regulation
Perceived Locus of Causality Scale
For external reinforcement such as gaining
rewards or avoiding punishment.
For avoiding external sources, of disapproval
(guilt) or gaining externally referenced
approval (self-esteem)
For personally-held values such as learning new
skills, resulting in feelings satisfaction High
internalization
For enjoyment, pleasure and fun no discernible
reinforcement.
Defining Features
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Self-Determination Theory and Exercise
Intrinsic Motivation
Amotivation
Introjected Regulation
External Regulation
Identified Regulation
External Locus of Causality
Internal
I exercise because its fun
I exercise because it helps keep me fit
I exercise because I will feel guilty if I dont
I exercise because I will be punished if I dont
Im not really sure why I exercise
Source Deci and Ryan (1985)
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Influence of Overarching Motives
from Self-Determination Theory
Attitude
.41
Subjective Norm
Intention
.45
Perceived Control
Source Hagger , Chatzisarantis and Biddle (2002)
BJHP
24
Influence of Overarching Motives
from Self-Determination Theory
Attitude
.41
Subjective Norm
Intention
R2 .32
.45
Perceived Control
Source Hagger , Chatzisarantis and Biddle (2002)
BJHP
25
Influence of Overarching Motives
from Self-Determination Theory
External
R2 .55
Attitude
.41
Introjection
Subjective Norm
Intention
.74
Intrinsic
R2 .32
.45
.37
Perceived Control
.71
R2 .51
Source Hagger , Chatzisarantis and Biddle (2002)
BJHP
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The Transcontextual Model
Intrinsic Motivation
Intrinsic Motivation
Attitude
Identified Regulation
Identified Regulation
Behavior (R2 .28)
Intention (R2 .63)
Subjective Norm
Perceived Autonomy Support
Introjected Regulation
Introjected Regulation
Perceived Behavioural Control
External Regulation
External Regulation
Time 3 Leisure-Time Context
Time 1 PE Context
Time 2 Leisure-Time Context
Hagger, Chatzisarantis, Culverhouse Biddle
(2003) Journal of Educational Psychology
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Important Effects in the TCM
Attitude
.27
.20
Perceived Autonomy Support
Autonomous Motives
Autonomous Motives
.39
.49
.25
Behaviour
Intention
.16
.15
Control
.10
Time 3 Physical Activity Behaviour
Time 1 Physical Education Context
Time 2 Leisure-Time Context
p lt .05
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Guidelines Based on Self-Determination Theory and
Trans-Contextual Model

• Reeve (2002) puts forward the behaviours which
  promote autonomous motivation
• Avoid use of external incentives and controlling
  feedback
• Promoting choice and sense of ownership
• Focus on task and personal goals rather than
  comparisons with others
• Provide a personal rationale
• Feedback that is information related to
  competence focusing on progress

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Another Example of a Pre-decisional Strategy
Decisional Balance

• The decisional balance sheet (Wankel, 1984)
  outlines the positive (pros) and negative
  (cons) aspects of exercise
• Similar to a cost-benefit analysis
• Exercisers attended 84 classes using DB sheet
  compared with 40 without (Hoyt Janis, 1975)
• Some have focused on changing stage from
  contemplation to action in TTM (see Prochaska
  DiClemente, 1993)

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What About Pre- and Post-decisional Strategies in
Combination?
IV2 Decisional balance
Prestwich, Lawton Conner (2003)
IV1 Implementation Intention
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Results Graphical Representation
Physical activity behaviour
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Decisional Balance and Implementation Intentions

• Decisional balance in combination with
  implementation intention exercise
• Experimental strategies produced a greater
  increase in exercise frequency and total time
  spent exercising per week
• Volitional groups taken together produced greater
  increase in time spent exercising than the DBS
  alone
• The DBS may have aided recall of the
  implementation intention or increased commitment
  to it

Source Prestwich, Lawton Conner (2003)
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Motivational Interviewing

• A theoretically based exercise promotion
  technique
• Borrowed from alcohol abuse and smoking clinical
  interview techniques
• Main proponents Stephen Rollnick and Colleagues
• Aim to focus on resistant non-exercisers and help
  investigate personally-relevant reasons c.f. Deci
  et al. (1994)

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Motivational Interviewing

• Aims
• To provide information without threatening
  autonomy and without evoking psychological
  reactance
• To explore conflicts and encourage interviewees
  to express their own reasons for change
• To use an appropriate strategy according to a
  persons readiness for change

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Motivational Interviewing

• Key concepts
• Ambivalence
• Problem Pros and Cons associated with change,
  cannot be reconciled
• Solution MI aims to explore conflict encourage
  people to express their own reasons for
  concern/change
• Readiness to change
• Problem People vary on continuum of readiness
• Solution Moving forward on continuum is desired
  outcome, even if actual behaviour change does not
  occur, key strategies a typical day/good
  things/less good things

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Strategies in Motivational Interviewing

• A menu of strategies
• Raise awareness
• Provide information
• The future and present strategy
• Exploring concerns
• Helping with decision making

Source Rollnick, Heather Bell (1991)
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Key Strategies
(1) Raise awareness e.g. have you ever thought
about exercise? and do you know what exercise
can do for you?, avoid scare tactics like if
you dont exercise you might die of a heart
attack! and statements like the less good
things about exercise are.... (2) Provide
information - Providing information in the most
optimal way do not wag your finger (3) The
future and the present strategy - How would you
like things to change in the future and whats
stopping you from doing exercise? (4) Exploring
concerns - provide information about the
behaviour and how they would like it to
change (5) Helping with decision making -
Patients in the preparatory phase require
assistance in making their decision, self
initiation.  
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Key Strategies
(4) Exploring concerns - provide information
about the behaviour and how they would like it to
change   (5) Helping with decision making -
Patients in the preparatory phase require
assistance in making their decision, self
initiation.
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Self-determination Theory and Motivational
Interviewing

• Markland, Ryan, Tobin, Rollnick (2005) and
  Vansteenkiste Sheldon (2006)
• Initially - intrinsic motivation stated as a core
  aspect of MI, but no theoretical basis
• Recent authors present a SDT reading of MI
• Approach in SDT supports psychological needs for
  autonomy, competence, and relatedness
• Autonomy Clients suggest personal reasons for
  change and experimenter rolls with resistance
• Competence Clients given clear feedback and
  encouraged to arrive at their own goals
• Relatedness Clients supported by
  non-judgemental interviewer who expresses empathy.

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Structure
Autonomy Support
Involvement

• Motivational interviewing
• Present clear and neutral information about
  behaviour and outcomes
• Provide positive feedback
• Develop appropriate goals
• Elicit and reinforce self-motivational statements

• Motivational interviewing
• Present options
• Let client make decisions
• Develop discrepancy to allow client to change
• Roll with resistance

• Motivational interviewing
• Express empathy
• Demonstrate understanding
• Avoid criticism and judgement
• Explore clients concerns

Competence
Self-Determination
Relatedness
Source Markland (2004)