By: Prof. Mohammad Qasim

1
Role of Anatomy in Understanding Health

• By Prof. Mohammad Qasim
• MD (Homoeo)
• B-36, Hazrat Nizamuddin West,
• New Delhi - 110013

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Role of Anatomy in Understanding Health

• Understand Homoeopathy, know anatomy, physiology,
  pathology.
• M. M. arrangement are anatomy schema .
• Repertory Mind Vertigo HeadGeneralities.
• Some rubric are cough, choking sensation,
  fauces from to bifurcation of bronchi-Syph-783
• Stomach-Hiccough/liver/biliary colic Chin
• vomiting of bile after
  anger-Cham, NV
• Abdomen-541, Cirrhrosis, liver Cupr, hep, hydras,
  phos

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Human Anatomy
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Human Body

• Body type and composition is influenced by post
  natal factor e g Diet and Exercise
• Human adulthood, the body consists of close to
  100 trillion (100,000,000,000,000) cells.
• Each is part of an organ system designed to
  perform essential life functions.
• The body's organ systems include the circulatory
  system, immune system, respiratory system,
  digestive system, excretory system, urinary
  system, musculoskeletal system, nervous system.

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Human Body

• The organs of the body include the brain, lungs,
  heart, liver, spleen, stomach, kidneys,
  gallbladder, bladder, pancreas, large intestine
  (colon), small intestine (ileum), male and female
  genitals, and skin.
• The human body consists of tissues and cells.
  Combination of individual atoms, molecules,
  polypeptides, cells in human body.

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Major organ systems

• Circulatory system pumping and channelling blood
  to and from the body and lungs with heart, blood,
  and blood vessels.
• Digestive system digestion and processing food
  with salivary glands, oesophagus, stomach, liver,
  gallbladder, pancreas, intestines, rectum, and
  anus.

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Major Organs Systems

• Endocrine system communication within the body
  using hormones made by endocrine glands such as
  the hypothalamus, pituitary or pituitary gland,
  pineal body or pineal gland, thyroid,
  parathyroid, and adrenals or adrenal glands
• Immune system protecting against disease by
  identifying and killing pathogens and tumour
  cells.
• Integumentary system skin, hair and nails

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Liver
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Liver

• Largest glandular organ of the body. weighs
  about 3 lb (1.36 kg).
• Reddish brown in color and is divided into four
  lobes of unequal size and shape.
• Blood is carried to the liver via two large
  vessels called the hepatic artery and the portal
  vein.
• The hepatic artery carries oxygen-rich blood from
  the aorta (a major vessel in the heart).

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Liver

• The portal vein carries blood containing digested
  food from the small intestine.
• These blood vessels subdivide in the liver
  repeatedly, terminating in very small
  capillaries.
• Each capillary leads to a lobule. Liver tissue is
  composed of thousands of lobules, and each lobule
  is made up of hepatic cells, the basic metabolic
  cells of the liver.

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Functions of the liver

• To produce substances that break down fats,
  convert glucose to glycogen,
• To produce urea (the main substance of urine),
• To make certain amino acids (the building blocks
  of proteins)
• To filter harmful substances from the blood
  (such as alcohol)
• Storage of vitamins and minerals (vitamins A, D,
  K and B12)

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Functions of the liver

• To maintain a proper level or glucose in the
  blood.
• The liver is also responsible for producing
  cholesterol.
• It produces about 80 of the cholesterol in our
  body.

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Hepatic Cells

• Make up about 60 percent of our liver tissue.
• These specialized liver cells carry out more
  chemical processes than any other group of cells
  in our body.
• Change most of the nutrients we consume into
  forms, our body cells can use.
• Convert sugars, store and release them as needed
  thereby regulating blood sugar level,
• Break down fats and produce cholesterol

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Functions of hepatic cells

• ,

• Remove ammonia from our body and produce blood
  proteins, including blood clotting factors
• Other functions of hepatic cells are
• Detoxify drugs and alcohol
• Produce bile, which breaks down fats in the food
  we eat

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Security Guard

• A second important group of liver cells are the
  Kupffer cells.
• Remove damaged red blood cells
• Destroy microbes and cell debris

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Essential for life

• Liver fulfils many vital functions, we would die
  within 24 hours if it stopped working.
• A common sign of a damaged liver is jaundice, a
  yellowness of the eyes and skin. This happens
  when bilirubin, a yellow breakdown product of our
  red blood cells, builds up in the blood.

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Diseases of the Liver

• Several diseases can affect the liver.
• Some of the diseases are
• Wilson's Disease,
• Hepatitis (an inflammation of the liver),
• Liver cancer, and
• Cirrhosis (a chronic inflammation that progresses
  ultimately to organ failure).
• Alcohol alters the metabolism of the liver, which
  can have overall detrimental effects if alcohol
  is taken over long periods of time.

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Medications that negatively effect the liver

• Medications have side effects that harm liver.
• Some of the medications that can damage the liver
  are
• serzone,
• anti-cancer drugs (tagfur, MTX, and cytoxan),
  and
• medications used to treat diabetes.
• Serzone is a drug manufactured by Bristol-Myers
  Squibb for the treatment of depression.

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Side effects of Serzone

• agitation, dizziness, clumsiness or unsteadiness,
  difficulty in concentrating, memory problems,
  confusion, severe nausea, gastroenteritis,
  abdominal pain, unusually dark urine, difficult
  or frequent urination, fainting, skin rash or
  hives, yellowing of the skin or whites of the
  eyes (jaundice) or a prolonged loss of weight or
  loss of appetite.

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What is a liver disease?

• It is categorized both by the cause and the
  effect it has on the liver.
• Causes include infection, injury, exposure to
  drugs or toxic compounds, an autoimmune process,
  or a genetic defect (such as hemochromatosis).
• These causes can lead to hepatitis, cirrhosis,
  stones that develop and form blockages, fatty
  liver, and in rare instances liver cancer.
• Genetic defects can prevent vital liver functions
  and lead to the deposition and build-up of
  damaging substances, such as iron or copper.

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Hepatitis

• Two major forms of hepatitis
• liver is inflamed quickly (called acute
  hepatitis) and
• the liver is inflamed and damaged slowly, over a
  long period of time (called chronic hepatitis).
• Caused by any of the means mentioned above, most
  commonly is due to infection by one of several
  viruses termed hepatitis viruses.
• Viruses have been named in the order of their
  discovery as hepatitis A, B, C, D, and E.

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Hepatitis A

• Spread through infected water and food especially
  common in children.
• Adults may experience symptoms such as jaundice,
  nausea, diarrhea, and fatigue

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Hepatitis B

• Found throughout the world
• Common in Southeast Asia and Africa.
• Most common cause of acute viral hepatitis in
  North America and Europe.
• One out of every 20 people in the United States
  will get infected with the hepatitis B virus at
  some time during their lives.

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Hepatitis B

• Spread by exposure to blood, through sexual
  relations, and from mother to baby.
• Symptoms of hepatitis B may be absent, mild and
  flu-like
• Most people will get better without any
  intervention, but about 1-3 will become
  chronically infected, able to continue to infect
  others, and
• often experience chronic progressive damage to
  the liver.

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Hepatitis B

• Those with weakened or compromised immune systems
  are at an increased risk to become chronically
  infected (about 10).
• Newborns are especially vulnerable, with over 90
  becoming chronically infected.

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Hepatitis C

• spread mainly by exposure to contaminated blood,
• Sharing of needles or other 'works' used in
  consuming drugs such as cocaine or heroin
• Use of contaminated equipment for activities such
  as body piercing and tattooing
• Occupational exposure of healthcare workers to
  used needles or other sharp objects
• Through sexual activity that results in tissue
  tears
• From mother to baby during childbirth or
• Cuts sustained during athletic or other activity.

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Hepatitis

• Hepatitis C is less common than hepatitis B as a
  cause of acute hepatitis
• Hepatitis D and E are rare in the U.S.

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Liver Functions

• Liver is responsible for the metabolism of
  alcohol, drugs, and envirohepatitis and/or
  cirrhosis.
• Environmental toxins, prolonged exposure to any
  of these can also cause liver problems
• Combinations of drugs (for instance,
  acetaminophen) and alcohol have the potential to
  cause life-threatening acute liver failure.

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Fatty Liver

• Fatty liver causes liver enlargement, tenderness,
  and abnormal liver function.
• Fatty degeneration of liverK547
• Most common cause
• excessive alcohol
  consumption.
• Usually a reversible condition, resolving with
  abstention from alcohol.

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Fatty Liver

• Another cause is nonalcoholic steatohepatitis
  (NASH), the most common chronic hepatitis not
  caused by viruses.
• While symptoms are usually fairly mild, it may
  cause cirrhosis.
• It is seen most commonly in overweight and
  diabetic individuals.

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Cirrhosis

• Causes severe ongoing injury to the liver
• Can lead to cirrhosis cell death and scar
  formation progressive disease that creates
  irreversible damage.
• Is treated by trying to limit further damage
• If it is caused by a virus or another treatable
  cause of liver injury, treating the cause can
  stabilize the disease and prevent deterioration
  in liver function.

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Cirrhosis

• Cirrhosis has no signs or symptoms in its early
  stages, but as it progresses, it can cause
  ascites, muscle wasting, bleeding from the
  intestines, easy bruising, gynecomastia, and a
  number of other problems.
• Liver function is monitored with such tests as
  albumin, prothrombin time, bilirubin, and a liver
  panel.
• In extreme cases, liver transplantation may be
  needed.

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Obstruction

• Gallstones, tumors, trauma, and inflammation can
  cause blockages or obstructions in the ducts
  draining the liver (bile ducts).
• Blood tests may show elevated levels of
  bilirubin, alkaline phosphatase (ALP), and other
  liver enzymes.

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Liver Cancer

• Hepatitis and cirrhosis may lead to liver cancer
  in some cases, but more frequently cancer starts
  in other parts of the body and then metastasizes
  to the liver.
• When cancer does arise in the liver, it is called
  primary liver cancer.
• The most common type is hepatocellular carcinoma,
  cancer that develops in the livers hepatocyte
  cells.
• checked on a regular basis for cancer, often with
  an alpha-fetoprotein (AFP) test and/or an
  ultrasound.

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Genetic Disorders

• Hemochromatosis
• the most common genetic liver disorder.
• involves excess iron storage and is usually
  diagnosed in adults.
• There are numerous genetic liver diseases that
  affect children.
• The most common is alpha 1-antitrypsin
  deficiency.
• Most of the genetic liver diseases involve a
• missing enzyme or protein that leads to damaging
  deposits in the liver (such as Galactosemia, the
  absence of a milk sugar enzyme, which leads to
  milk sugar accumulation Wilsons disease, where
  copper builds up in the liver).

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Testing

• Laboratory Test
• Three types of tests are often used to detect
  liver disease
• These tests either measure the levels of specific
  enzymes, bilirubin, or protein present in the
  test sample (usually a blood sample). 

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Testing

• Alanine aminotransferase (ALT)
• an enzyme found mainly in the liver the best
  test for detecting hepatitis
• Alkaline phosphatase (ALP)
• an enzyme related to the bile ducts
• often increased when they are blocked
• Aspartate aminotransferase (AST)
• an enzyme found in the liver and a few other
  places,
• particularly the heart and other muscles
• Gamma-glutamyl transferase (GGT)
• an enzyme found mainly in the liver
• very sensitive to changes in liver function

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Bilirubin

• a waste product made from old or damaged blood
  cells,
• is a yellow compound that causes jaundice and
  dark urine when present in increased amounts.
• Two different tests of bilirubin are often used
  together
• Total bilirubin - measures all the bilirubin in
  the blood
• Direct bilirubin - measures a form conjugated
  (combined with another compound) in the liver
• Protein One of the main functions of the liver
  is to make protein.

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Two important liver tests include

• Total Protein
• measures albumin and all other proteins in
  blood,
• Albumin
• measures the main protein made by the liver
• tells how well the liver is making this protein
  including antibodies made to help fight off
  infections
• (antibodies are not made in the liver) 

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Specific tests

• Hepatitis A, Hepatitis B, Hepatitis C
• to detect viral hepatitis
• the patients white and red blood cells and
  platelets count
• Prothrombin time (PT)
• to evaluate Complete blood count (CBC)
• to evaluate clotting function
• Alfa-fetoprotein (AFP)
• may be elevated with liver cancer
• Tests for iron status
• when hemochromatosis is suspected
• Liver biopsy
• a tiny sample of liver tissue is taken to
  evaluate the structure and cells of the liver

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Non-Laboratory Tests

• Computerized axial tomography (CAT) scan
• Ultrasound

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TEN TIPS FOR A HEALTHY LIVER
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Drink alcohol in moderation
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Maintain normal weight
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Avoid cigarette smoking
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Avoid sushi or  raw or partially cooked mollusks
(clams, oysters, mussels, and scallops)
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Practice safe sex
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Avoid recreational drug use
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If ever experimented with intravenous drugs,
even just once, and even if it was many years
ago, or if have had a blood, blood product
transfusion or organ transplant prior to 1992 --
get tested for hepatitis C
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If ever been told that something is wrong with
the liver, even if one feel fine - see a liver
specialist (hepatologist)
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Do not share toothbrushes, razors or other
personal items with anyone
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Anyone who intends to get a tattoo or have a body
part pierced should make sure that they deal only
with establishments that are clean and that
adhere to meticulous sterilization practices
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What your mind doesnt know, your eye cannot
seeThank you
Maintain normal weight. It is estimated that
approximately one-third of Americans are obese,
and that approximately 75 percent of obese people
have a fatty liver - a liver disease that may
lead to cirrhosis, liver failure and liver
cancer.?Maintain normal weight. It is estimated
that approximately one-third of Americans are
obese, and that approximately 75 percent of obese
people have a fatty liver - a liver disease that
may lead to cirrhosis, liver failure and liver
cancer.?
Maintain normal weight. It is estimated that
approximately one-third of Americans are obese,
and that approximately 75 percent of obese people
have a fatty liver - a liver disease that may
lead to cirrhosis, liver failure and liver
cancer.?
Maintain normal weight. It is estimated that
approximately one-third of Americans are obese,
and that approximately 75 percent of obese people
have a fatty liver - a liver disease that may
lead to cirrhosis, liver failure and liver
cancer.?