RTI:%20An%20Introduction%20for%20Middle%20

1
RTI An Introduction for Middle High School
EducatorsJim Wrightwww.interventioncentral.org
2
Workshop Goals
3
http//www.jimwrightonline.com/millbrook.php
4
Secondary Students Unique Challenges

• Struggling learners in middle and high school
  may
• Have significant deficits in basic academic
  skills
• Lack higher-level problem-solving strategies and
  concepts
• Present with issues of school motivation
• Show social/emotional concerns that interfere
  with academics
• Have difficulty with attendance
• Are often in a process of disengaging from
  learning even as adults in school expect that
  those students will move toward being
  self-managing learners

5
School Dropout as a Process, Not an Event

• It is increasingly accepted that dropout is
  best conceptualized as a long-term process, not
  an instantaneous event however, most
  interventions are administered at a middle or
  high school level after problems are severe.

Source Jimerson, S., Reschly, A.L., Hess, R.
(2008). Best practices in increasing the
likelihood of school completion. In A. Thomas
J. Grimes (Eds). Best Practices in School
Psychology - 5th Ed (pp. 1085-1097). Bethesda,
MD National Association of School
Psychologists.. p.1090
6
Student Motivation The Need for Intervention

• A common response to students who struggle in
  sixth grade is to wait and hope they grow out of
  it or adapt, to attribute early struggles to the
  natural commotion of early adolescence and to
  temporary difficulties in adapting to new
  organizational structures of schooling, more
  challenging curricula and assessment, and less
  personalized attention. Our evidence clearly
  indicates that, at least in high-poverty urban
  schools, sixth graders who are missing 20 or
  more of the days, exhibiting poor behavior, or
  failing math or English do not recover. On the
  contrary, they drop out. This says that early
  intervention is not only productive but
  absolutely essential.

Source Balfanz, R., Herzog, L., MacIver, D. J.
(2007). Preventing student disengagement and
keeping students on the graduation path in urban
middle grades schools Early identification and
effective interventions. Educational
Psychologist,42, 223235. .
7
What Are the Early Warning Flags of Student
Drop-Out?

• A sample of 13,000 students in Philadelphia were
  tracked for 8 years. These early warning
  indicators were found to predict student drop-out
  in the sixth-grade year
• Failure in English
• Failure in math
• Missing at least 20 of school days
• Receiving an unsatisfactory behavior rating
  from at least one teacher

Source Balfanz, R., Herzog, L., MacIver, D. J.
(2007). Preventing student disengagement and
keeping students on the graduation path in urban
middle grades schools Early identification and
effective interventions. Educational
Psychologist,42, 223235. .
8
What is the Predictive Power of These Early
Warning Flags?
Number of Early Warning Flags in Student Record Probability That Student Would Graduate
None 56
1 36
2 21
3 13
4 7
Source Balfanz, R., Herzog, L., MacIver, D. J.
(2007). Preventing student disengagement and
keeping students on the graduation path in urban
middle grades schools Early identification and
effective interventions. Educational
Psychologist,42, 223235. .
9
RTI Assumption Struggling Students Are Typical
Until Proven Otherwise

• RTI logic assumes that
• A student who begins to struggle in general
  education is typical, and that
• It is general educations responsibility to find
  the instructional strategies that will unlock the
  students learning potential
• Only when the student shows through
  well-documented interventions that he or she has
  failed to respond to intervention does RTI
  begin to investigate the possibility that the
  student may have a learning disability or other
  special education condition.

10
Essential Elements of RTI (Fairbanks, Sugai,
Guardino, Lathrop, 2007)

1. A continuum of evidence-based services available
   to all students" that range from universal to
   highly individualized intensive
2. Decision points to determine if students are
   performing significantly below the level of their
   peers in academic and social behavior domains"
3. Ongoing monitoring of student progress"
4. Employment of more intensive or different
   interventions when students do not improve in
   response" to lesser interventions
5. Evaluation for special education services if
   students do not respond to intervention
   instruction"

Source Fairbanks, S., Sugai, G., Guardino, S.,
Lathrop, M. (2007). Response to intervention
Examining classroom behavior support in second
grade. Exceptional Children, 73, p. 289.
11
RTI Pyramid of Interventions
12
NYSED RTI Guidance Document October 2010
13
Source New York State Education Department.
(October 2010). Response to Intervention
Guidance for New York State School Districts.
Retrieved November 10, 2010, from
http//www.p12.nysed.gov/specialed/RTI/guidance-oc
t10.pdf p. 12
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Tier 1 Core Instruction

• Tier I core instruction
• Is universalavailable to all students.
• Can be delivered within classrooms or throughout
  the school.
• Is an ongoing process of developing strong
  classroom instructional practices to reach the
  largest number of struggling learners.
• All children have access to Tier 1
  instruction/interventions. Teachers have the
  capability to use those strategies without
  requiring outside assistance.
• Tier 1 instruction encompasses
• The schools core curriculum.
• All published or teacher-made materials used to
  deliver that curriculum.
• Teacher use of whole-group teaching
  management strategies.
• Tier I instruction addresses this question Are
  strong classroom instructional strategies
  sufficient to help the student to achieve
  academic success?

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Tier I (Classroom) Intervention

• Tier 1 intervention
• Targets red flag students who are not
  successful with core instruction alone.
• Uses evidence-based strategies to address
  student academic or behavioral concerns.
• Must be feasible to implement given the resources
  available in the classroom.
• Tier I intervention addresses the question Does
  the student make adequate progress when the
  instructor uses specific academic or behavioral
  strategies matched to the presenting concern?

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The Key Role of Classroom Teachers in RTI 6 Steps

1. The teacher defines the student academic or
   behavioral problem clearly.
2. The teacher decides on the best explanation for
   why the problem is occurring.
3. The teacher selects evidence-based
   interventions.
4. The teacher documents the students Tier 1
   intervention plan.
5. The teacher monitors the students response
   (progress) to the intervention plan.
6. The teacher knows what the next steps are when a
   student fails to make adequate progress with Tier
   1 interventions alone.

17
Source New York State Education Department.
(October 2010). Response to Intervention
Guidance for New York State School Districts.
Retrieved November 10, 2010, from
http//www.p12.nysed.gov/specialed/RTI/guidance-oc
t10.pdf p. 13
18
Source New York State Education Department.
(October 2010). Response to Intervention
Guidance for New York State School Districts.
Retrieved November 10, 2010, from
http//www.p12.nysed.gov/specialed/RTI/guidance-oc
t10.pdf p. 14
19
Team Activity What Are Your RTI Questions?

• At your table
• Discuss the content covered so far in todays RTI
  presentation.
• What RTI questions does your group still have?

20
RTI Intervention Key Concepts
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Core Instruction, Interventions, Accommodations
Modifications Sorting Them Out

• Core Instruction. Those instructional strategies
  that are used routinely with all students in a
  general-education setting are considered core
  instruction. High-quality instruction is
  essential and forms the foundation of RTI
  academic support. NOTE While it is important to
  verify that good core instructional practices are
  in place for a struggling student, those routine
  practices do not count as individual student
  interventions.

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Core Instruction, Interventions, Accommodations
Modifications Sorting Them Out

• Intervention. An academic intervention is a
  strategy used to teach a new skill, build fluency
  in a skill, or encourage a child to apply an
  existing skill to new situations or settings. An
  intervention can be thought of as a set of
  actions that, when taken, have demonstrated
  ability to change a fixed educational trajectory
  (Methe Riley-Tillman, 2008 p. 37).

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Core Instruction, Interventions, Accommodations
Modifications Sorting Them Out

• Accommodation. An accommodation is intended to
  help the student to fully access and participate
  in the general-education curriculum without
  changing the instructional content and without
  reducing the students rate of learning (Skinner,
  Pappas Davis, 2005). An accommodation is
  intended to remove barriers to learning while
  still expecting that students will master the
  same instructional content as their typical
  peers.
• Accommodation example 1 Students are allowed to
  supplement silent reading of a novel by listening
  to the book on tape.
• Accommodation example 2 For unmotivated
  students, the instructor breaks larger
  assignments into smaller chunks and providing
  students with performance feedback and praise for
  each completed chunk of assigned work (Skinner,
  Pappas Davis, 2005).

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Teaching is giving it isnt taking away.
(Howell, Hosp Kurns, 2008 p. 356).


Source Howell, K. W., Hosp, J. L., Kurns, S.
(2008). Best practices in curriculum-based
evaluation. In A. Thomas J. Grimes (Eds.), Best
practices in school psychology V (pp.349-362).
Bethesda, MD National Association of School
Psychologists..
25
Core Instruction, Interventions, Accommodations
Modifications Sorting Them Out

• Modification. A modification changes the
  expectations of what a student is expected to
  know or dotypically by lowering the academic
  standards against which the student is to be
  evaluated. Examples of modifications
• Giving a student five math computation problems
  for practice instead of the 20 problems assigned
  to the rest of the class
• Letting the student consult course notes during a
  test when peers are not permitted to do so

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Promoting Student Reading Comprehension Fix-Up
SkillsJim Wrightwww.interventioncentral.org
27
Reading Comprehension Fix-Up Skills A Toolkit

• Good readers continuously monitor their
  understanding of informational text. When
  necessary, they also take steps to improve their
  understanding of text through use of reading
  comprehension fix-up skills.
• Presented here are a series of fix-up skill
  strategies that can help struggling students to
  better understand difficult reading assignments

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Reading Comprehension Fix-Up Skills A Toolkit
(Cont.)

• Core Instruction Providing Main Idea Practice
  through Partner Retell (Carnine Carnine,
  2004). Students in a group or class are assigned
  a text selection to read silently. Students are
  then paired off, with one student assigned the
  role of reteller and the other appointed as
  listener. The reteller recounts the main idea
  to the listener, who can comment or ask
  questions. The teacher then states the main idea
  to the class. Next, the reteller locates two key
  details from the reading that support the main
  idea and shares these with the listener. At the
  end of the activity, the teacher does a spot
  check by randomly calling on one or more students
  in the listener role and asking them to recap
  what information was shared by the reteller.

29
Reading Comprehension Fix-Up Skills A Toolkit
(Cont.)

• Accommodation Developing a Bank of Multiple
  Passages to Present Challenging Concepts (Hedin
  Conderman, 2010 Kamil et al., 2008 Texas
  Reading Initiative, 2002). The teacher notes
  which course concepts, cognitive strategies, or
  other information will likely present the
  greatest challenge to students. For these
  challenge topics, the teacher selects
  alternative readings that present the same
  general information and review the same key
  vocabulary as the course text but that are more
  accessible to struggling readers (e.g., with
  selections written at an easier reading level or
  that use graphics to visually illustrate
  concepts). These alternative selections are
  organized into a bank that students can access as
  a source of wide reading material.

30
Reading Comprehension Fix-Up Skills A Toolkit
(Cont.)

• Student Strategy Promoting Understanding
  Building Endurance through Reading-Reflection
  Pauses (Hedin Conderman, 2010). The student
  decides on a reading interval (e.g., every four
  sentences every 3 minutes at the end of each
  paragraph). At the end of each interval, the
  student pauses briefly to recall the main points
  of the reading. If the student has questions or
  is uncertain about the content, the student
  rereads part or all of the section just read.
  This strategy is useful both for students who
  need to monitor their understanding as well as
  those who benefit from brief breaks when engaging
  in intensive reading as a means to build up
  endurance as attentive readers.

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Reading Comprehension Fix-Up Skills A Toolkit
(Cont.)

• Student Strategy Identifying or Constructing
  Main Idea Sentences (Davey McBride, 1986
  Rosenshine, Meister Chapman, 1996). For each
  paragraph in an assigned reading, the student
  either (a) highlights the main idea sentence or
  (b) highlights key details and uses them to write
  a gist sentence. The student then writes the
  main idea of that paragraph on an index card. On
  the other side of the card, the student writes a
  question whose answer is that paragraphs main
  idea sentence. This stack of main idea cards
  becomes a useful tool to review assigned
  readings.

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Reading Comprehension Fix-Up Skills A Toolkit
(Cont.)

• Student Strategy Restructuring Paragraphs with
  Main Idea First to Strengthen Rereads (Hedin
  Conderman, 2010). The student highlights or
  creates a main idea sentence for each paragraph
  in the assigned reading. When rereading each
  paragraph of the selection, the student (1) reads
  the main idea sentence or student-generated
  gist sentence first (irrespective of where that
  sentence actually falls in the paragraph) (2)
  reads the remainder of the paragraph, and (3)
  reflects on how the main idea relates to the
  paragraph content.

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Reading Comprehension Fix-Up Skills A Toolkit
(Cont.)

• Student Strategy Summarizing Readings (Boardman
  et al., 2008). The student is taught to summarize
  readings into main ideas and essential
  details--stripped of superfluous content. The act
  of summarizing longer readings can promote
  understanding and retention of content while the
  summarized text itself can be a useful study
  tool.

34
Reading Comprehension Fix-Up Skills A Toolkit
(Cont.)

• Student Strategy Linking Pronouns to Referents
  (Hedin Conderman, 2010). Some readers lose the
  connection between pronouns and the nouns that
  they refer to (known as referents)especially
  when reading challenging text. The student is
  encouraged to circle pronouns in the reading, to
  explicitly identify each pronouns referent, and
  (optionally) to write next to the pronoun the
  name of its referent. For example, the student
  may add the referent to a pronoun in this
  sentence from a biology text The Cambrian
  Period is the first geological age that has large
  numbers of multi-celled organisms associated with
  it Cambrian Period.

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Reading Comprehension Fix-Up Skills A Toolkit
(Cont.)

• Student Strategy Apply Vocabulary Fix-Up
  Skills for Unknown Words (Klingner Vaughn,
  1999). When confronting an unknown word in a
  reading selection, the student applies the
  following vocabulary fix-up skills
• Read the sentence again.
• Read the sentences before and after the problem
  sentence for clues to the words meaning.
• See if there are prefixes or suffixes in the word
  that can give clues to meaning.
• Break the word up by syllables and look for
  smaller words within.

36
Reading Comprehension Fix-Up Skills A Toolkit
(Cont.)

• Student Strategy Compiling a Vocabulary Journal
  from Course Readings (Hedin Conderman, 2010).
  The student highlights new or unfamiliar
  vocabulary from course readings. The student
  writes each term into a vocabulary journal, using
  a standard sentence-stem format e.g., Mitosis
  means or A chloroplast is. If the student is
  unable to generate a definition for a vocabulary
  term based on the course reading, he or she
  writes the term into the vocabulary journal
  without definition and then applies other
  strategies to define the term e.g., look up the
  term in a dictionary use Google to locate two
  examples of the term being used correctly in
  context ask the instructor, etc.).

37
Reading Comprehension Fix-Up Skills A Toolkit
(Cont.)

• Student Strategy Encouraging Student Use of
  Text Enhancements (Hedin Conderman, 2010). Text
  enhancements can be used to tag important
  vocabulary terms, key ideas, or other reading
  content. If working with photocopied material,
  the student can use a highlighter to note key
  ideas or vocabulary. Another enhancement strategy
  is the lasso and rope techniqueusing a pen or
  pencil to circle a vocabulary term and then
  drawing a line that connects that term to its
  underlined definition. If working from a
  textbook, the student can cut sticky notes into
  strips. These strips can be inserted in the book
  as pointers to text of interest. They can also be
  used as temporary labelse.g., for writing a
  vocabulary term and its definition.

38
Reading Comprehension Fix-Up Skills A Toolkit
(Cont.)

• Student Strategy Reading Actively Through Text
  Annotation (Harris, 1990 Sarkisian et al.,
  2003). Students are likely to increase their
  retention of information when they interact
  actively with their reading by jotting comments
  in the margin of the text. Using photocopies, the
  student is taught to engage in an ongoing
  'conversation' with the writer by recording a
  running series of brief comments in the margins
  of the text. The student may write annotations to
  record opinions about points raised by the
  writer, questions triggered by the reading, or
  unknown vocabulary words.

39
RTI Writing Interventions Jim
Wrightwww.interventioncentral.org
40

• "If all the grammarians in the world were placed
  end to end, it would be a good thing."
• Oscar Wilde

41
Graham, S., Perin, D. (2007). Writing next
Effective strategies to improve writing of
adolescents in middle and high schools A report
to Carnegie Corporation of New York. Washington,
DC Alliance for Excellent Education. Retrieved
from http//www.all4ed.org/files/WritingNext.pdf
42
The Effect of Grammar Instruction as an
Independent Activity

• Grammar instruction in the studies reviewed
  for the Writing Next report involved the
  explicit and systematic teaching of the parts of
  speech and structure of sentences. The
  meta-analysis found an effect for this type of
  instruction for students across the full range of
  ability, but surprisingly, this effect was
  negativeSuch findings raise serious questions
  about some educators enthusiasm for traditional
  grammar instruction as a focus of writing
  instruction for adolescents.Overall, the
  findings on grammar instruction suggest that,
  although teaching grammar is important,
  alternative procedures, such as sentence
  combining, are more effective than traditional
  approaches for improving the quality of students
  writing. p. 21

Source Graham, S., Perin, D. (2007). Writing
next Effective strategies to improve writing of
adolescents in middle and high schools A report
to Carnegie Corporation of New York. Washington,
DC Alliance for Excellent Education.
43

• Sentence Combining An Effective Writing
  Intervention for Adolescents
• Sentence Combining (Effect Size 0.50)
  Students take part in instructional activities
  that require the combination or embedding of
  simpler sentences (e.g., Noun-Verb-Object) to
  generate more advanced, complex sentences.

Source Graham, S., Perin, D. (2007). Writing
next Effective strategies to improve writing of
adolescents in middle and high schools A report
to Carnegie Corporation of New York. Washington,
DC Alliance for Excellent Education. Retrieved
from http//www.all4ed.org/files/WritingNext.pdf
44
Sentence Combining

• Students with poor writing skills often write
  sentences that lack syntactic maturity. Their
  sentences often follow a simple, stereotyped
  format. A promising approach to teach students
  use of diverse sentence structures is through
  sentence combining. In sentence combining,
  students are presented with kernel sentences and
  given explicit instruction in how to weld these
  kernel sentences into more diverse sentence types
  either
• by using connecting words to combine multiple
  sentences into one or
• by isolating key information from an otherwise
  superfluous sentence and embedding that important
  information into the base sentence.

Sources Saddler, B. (2005). Sentence combining
A sentence-level writing intervention. The
Reading Teacher, 58, 468-471. Strong, W. (1986).
Creative approaches to sentence combining.
Urbana, OL ERIC Clearinghouse on Reading and
Communication Skill National Council of
Teachers of English.
45
Formatting Sentence Combining Examples
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49
Interpreting Math Graphics A Reading
Comprehension Intervention
50
Housing Bubble GraphicNew York Times23
September 2007
51
Classroom Challenges in Interpreting Math Graphics

• When encountering math graphics, students may
• expect the answer to be easily accessible when in
  fact the graphic may expect the reader to
  interpret and draw conclusions
• be inattentive to details of the graphic
• treat irrelevant data as relevant
• not pay close attention to questions before
  turning to graphics to find the answer
• fail to use their prior knowledge both to extend
  the information on the graphic and to act as a
  possible check on the information that it
  presents.

Source Mesmer, H.A.E., Hutchins, E.J. (2002).
Using QARs with charts and graphs. The Reading
Teacher, 56, 2127.
52
Using Question-Answer Relationships (QARs) to
Interpret Information from Math Graphics

• Students can be more savvy interpreters of
  graphics in applied math problems by applying the
  Question-Answer Relationship (QAR) strategy. Four
  Kinds of QAR Questions
• RIGHT THERE questions are fact-based and can be
  found in a single sentence, often accompanied by
  'clue' words that also appear in the question.
• THINK AND SEARCH questions can be answered by
  information in the text but require the scanning
  of text and making connections between different
  pieces of factual information.
• AUTHOR AND YOU questions require that students
  take information or opinions that appear in the
  text and combine them with the reader's own
  experiences or opinions to formulate an answer.
• ON MY OWN questions are based on the students'
  own experiences and do not require knowledge of
  the text to answer.

Source Mesmer, H.A.E., Hutchins, E.J. (2002).
Using QARs with charts and graphs. The Reading
Teacher, 56, 2127.
53
Using Question-Answer Relationships (QARs) to
Interpret Information from Math Graphics 4-Step
Teaching Sequence

1. DISTINGUISHING DIFFERENT KINDS OF GRAPHICS.
   Students are taught to differentiate between
   common types of graphics e.g., table (grid with
   information contained in cells), chart (boxes
   with possible connecting lines or arrows),
   picture (figure with labels), line graph, bar
   graph. Students note significant differences
   between the various graphics, while the teacher
   records those observations on a wall chart. Next
   students are given examples of graphics and asked
   to identify which general kind of graphic each
   is. Finally, students are assigned to go on a
   graphics hunt, locating graphics in magazines
   and newspapers, labeling them, and bringing to
   class to review.

Source Mesmer, H.A.E., Hutchins, E.J. (2002).
Using QARs with charts and graphs. The Reading
Teacher, 56, 2127.
54
Using Question-Answer Relationships (QARs) to
Interpret Information from Math Graphics 4-Step
Teaching Sequence

1. INTERPRETING INFORMATION IN GRAPHICS. Students
   are paired off, with stronger students matched
   with less strong ones. The teacher spends at
   least one session presenting students with
   examples from each of the graphics categories.
   The presentation sequence is ordered so that
   students begin with examples of the most concrete
   graphics and move toward the more abstract
   Pictures gt tables gt bar graphs gt charts gt line
   graphs. At each session, student pairs examine
   graphics and discuss questions such as What
   information does this graphic present? What are
   strengths of this graphic for presenting data?
   What are possible weaknesses?

Source Mesmer, H.A.E., Hutchins, E.J. (2002).
Using QARs with charts and graphs. The Reading
Teacher, 56, 2127.
55
Using Question-Answer Relationships (QARs) to
Interpret Information from Math Graphics 4-Step
Teaching Sequence

1. LINKING THE USE OF QARS TO GRAPHICS. Students are
   given a series of data questions and correct
   answers, with each question accompanied by a
   graphic that contains information needed to
   formulate the answer. Students are also each
   given index cards with titles and descriptions of
   each of the 4 QAR questions RIGHT THERE, THINK
   AND SEARCH, AUTHOR AND YOU, ON MY OWN. Working
   in small groups and then individually, students
   read the questions, study the matching graphics,
   and verify the answers as correct. They then
   identify the type question being asked using
   their QAR index cards.

Source Mesmer, H.A.E., Hutchins, E.J. (2002).
Using QARs with charts and graphs. The Reading
Teacher, 56, 2127.
56
Using Question-Answer Relationships (QARs) to
Interpret Information from Math Graphics 4-Step
Teaching Sequence

• USING QARS WITH GRAPHICS INDEPENDENTLY. When
  students are ready to use the QAR strategy
  independently to read graphics, they are given a
  laminated card as a reference with 6 steps to
  follow
• Read the question,
• Review the graphic,
• Reread the question,
• Choose a QAR,
• Answer the question, and
• Locate the answer derived from the graphic in the
  answer choices offered.
• Students are strongly encouraged NOT to read the
  answer choices offered until they have first
  derived their own answer, so that those choices
  dont short-circuit their inquiry.

Source Mesmer, H.A.E., Hutchins, E.J. (2002).
Using QARs with charts and graphs. The Reading
Teacher, 56, 2127.
57
Developing Student Metacognitive Abilities
58
Importance of Metacognitive Strategy Use

• Metacognitive processes focus on self-awareness
  of cognitive knowledge that is presumed to be
  necessary for effective problem solving, and they
  direct and regulate cognitive processes and
  strategies during problem solvingThat is,
  successful problem solvers, consciously or
  unconsciously (depending on task demands), use
  self-instruction, self-questioning, and
  self-monitoring to gain access to strategic
  knowledge, guide execution of strategies, and
  regulate use of strategies and problem-solving
  performance. p. 231

Source Montague, M. (1992). The effects of
cognitive and metacognitive strategy instruction
on the mathematical problem solving of middle
school students with learning disabilities.
Journal of Learning Disabilities, 25, 230-248.
59
Elements of Metacognitive Processes

• Self-instruction helps students to identify and
  direct the problem-solving strategies prior to
  execution. Self-questioning promotes internal
  dialogue for systematically analyzing problem
  information and regulating execution of cognitive
  strategies. Self-monitoring promotes appropriate
  use of specific strategies and encourages
  students to monitor general performance.
  Emphasis added. p. 231

Source Montague, M. (1992). The effects of
cognitive and metacognitive strategy instruction
on the mathematical problem solving of middle
school students with learning disabilities.
Journal of Learning Disabilities, 25, 230-248.
60
Combining Cognitive Metacognitive Strategies to
Assist Students With Mathematical Problem Solving

• Solving an advanced math problem independently
  requires the coordination of a number of complex
  skills. The following strategies combine both
  cognitive and metacognitive elements (Montague,
  1992 Montague Dietz, 2009). First, the student
  is taught a 7-step process for attacking a math
  word problem (cognitive strategy). Second, the
  instructor trains the student to use a three-part
  self-coaching routine for each of the seven
  problem-solving steps (metacognitive strategy).

61
Cognitive Portion of Combined Problem Solving
Approach

• In the cognitive part of this multi-strategy
  intervention, the student learns an explicit
  series of steps to analyze and solve a math
  problem. Those steps include
• Reading the problem. The student reads the
  problem carefully, noting and attempting to clear
  up any areas of uncertainly or confusion (e.g.,
  unknown vocabulary terms).
• Paraphrasing the problem. The student restates
  the problem in his or her own words.
• Drawing the problem. The student creates a
  drawing of the problem, creating a visual
  representation of the word problem.
• Creating a plan to solve the problem. The student
  decides on the best way to solve the problem and
  develops a plan to do so.
• Predicting/Estimating the answer. The student
  estimates or predicts what the answer to the
  problem will be. The student may compute a quick
  approximation of the answer, using rounding or
  other shortcuts.
• Computing the answer. The student follows the
  plan developed earlier to compute the answer to
  the problem.
• Checking the answer. The student methodically
  checks the calculations for each step of the
  problem. The student also compares the actual
  answer to the estimated answer calculated in a
  previous step to ensure that there is general
  agreement between the two values.

62
Metacognitive Portion of Combined Problem Solving
Approach

• The metacognitive component of the intervention
  is a three-part routine that follows a sequence
  of Say, Ask, Check. For each of the 7
  problem-solving steps reviewed above
• The student first self-instructs by stating, or
  saying, the purpose of the step (Say).
• The student next self-questions by asking what
  he or she intends to do to complete the step
  (Ask).
• The student concludes the step by
  self-monitoring, or checking, the successful
  completion of the step (Check).

63
Combined Cognitive Metacognitive Elements of
Strategy
64
Combined Cognitive Metacognitive Elements of
Strategy
65
Combined Cognitive Metacognitive Elements of
Strategy
66
Combined Cognitive Metacognitive Elements of
Strategy
67
Combined Cognitive Metacognitive Elements of
Strategy
68
Combined Cognitive Metacognitive Elements of
Strategy
69
Combined Cognitive Metacognitive Elements of
Strategy
70
Monitoring Student Academic or General
BehaviorsDaily Behavior Report Cards
71
Daily Behavior Report Cards (DBRCs) Are

• brief forms containing student behavior-rating
  items. The teacher typically rates the student
  daily (or even more frequently) on the DBRC. The
  results can be graphed to document student
  response to an intervention.

72
Daily Behavior Report Cards Can Monitor

• Hyperactivity
• On-Task Behavior (Attention)
• Work Completion
• Organization Skills
• Compliance With Adult Requests
• Ability to Interact Appropriately With Peers

73
Jim Blalock
May 5
Mrs. Williams
Rm 108
Daily Behavior Report Card Daily Version
74
Jim Blalock
Mrs. Williams
Rm 108
Daily Behavior Report Card Weekly Version
05 05 07
05 06 07
05 07 07
05 08 07
05 09 07
40
0
60
60
50
75
Daily Behavior Report Card Chart
76
Rating Scales Example

• Example All of the teachers on a 7th-grade
  instructional team decided to use a Daily
  Behavior Report to monitor classroom
  interventions for Brian, a student who presented
  challenges of inattention, incomplete work, and
  occasional non-compliance. They created a DBR
  with the following items
• Brian focused his attention on teacher
  instructions, classroom lessons and assigned
  work.
• Brian completed and turned in his assigned class
  work on time.
• Brian spoke respectfully and complied with adult
  requests without argument or complaint.
• Each rating items was rated using a 1-9 scale
  
• On average, Brian scored no higher than 3
  (Never/Seldom range) on all rating items in all
  classrooms (baseline). The team set as an
  intervention goal that, by the end of a 6-week
  intervention to be used in all classrooms, Brian
  would be rated in the 7-9 range (Most/All of the
  Time) in all classrooms.

77
Academic Enabler Observational Checklists
Measuring Students Ability to Manage Their Own
Learning
78
Academic Enabler Skills Why Are They
Important?

• Student academic success requires more than
  content knowledge or mastery of a collection of
  cognitive strategies. Academic accomplishment
  depends also on a set of ancillary skills and
  attributes called academic enablers (DiPerna,
  2006). Examples of academic enablers include
• Study skills
• Homework completion
• Cooperative learning skills
• Organization
• Independent seatwork

Source DiPerna, J. C. (2006). Academic enablers
and student achievement Implications for
assessment and intervention services in the
schools. Psychology in the Schools, 43, 7-17.
79
Academic Enabler Skills Why Are They
Important? (Cont.)

• Because academic enablers are often described as
  broad skill sets, however, they can be
  challenging to define in clear, specific,
  measureable terms. A useful method for defining a
  global academic enabling skill is to break it
  down into a checklist of component sub-skills--a
  process known as discrete categorization
  (Kazdin, 1989). An observer can then use the
  checklist to note whether a student successfully
  displays each of the sub-skills.

Source Kazdin, A. E. (1989). Behavior
modification in applied settings (4th ed.).
Pacific Gove, CA Brooks/Cole.
80
Academic Enabler Skills Why Are They
Important? (Cont.)

• Observational checklists that define academic
  enabling skills have several uses in Response to
  Intervention
• Classroom teachers can use these skills
  checklists as convenient tools to assess whether
  a student possesses the minimum starter set of
  academic enabling skills needed for classroom
  success.
• Teachers or tutors can share examples of
  academic-enabler skills checklists with students,
  training them in each of the sub-skills and
  encouraging them to use the checklists
  independently to take greater responsibility for
  their own learning.  
• Teachers or other observers can use the academic
  enabler checklists periodically to monitor
  student progress during interventions--assessing
  formatively whether the student is using more of
  the sub-skills.

Source Kazdin, A. E. (1989). Behavior
modification in applied settings (4th ed.).
Pacific Gove, CA Brooks/Cole.
81
Academic Enabler Skills Sample Observational
Checklists
82
Academic Enabler Skills Sample Observational
Checklists
83
Academic Enabler Skills Sample Observational
Checklists
84
Academic Enabler Skills Sample Observational
Checklists
85
Academic Enabler Skills Sample Observational
Checklists
86
Academic Enabler Skills Sample Observational
Checklists
87
Academic Enabler Skills Sample Observational
Checklists
88
Academic Enabler Skills Checklist Example

• Example A middle school math instructor, Mr.
  Haverneck, was concerned that a student, Rodney,
  appears to have poor organization skills. Mr.
  Haverneck created a checklist of observable
  subskills that, in his opinion, were part of the
  global term organization skills
• arriving to class on time
• bringing work materials to class
• following teacher directions in a timely manner
• knowing how to request teacher assistance when
  needed
• having an uncluttered desk with only essential
  work materials.
• Mr. Havernick monitored the students compliance
  with elements of this organization -skills
  checklist across three days of math class. On
  average, Rodney successfully carried out only 2
  of the 5 possible subskills (baseline). Mr.
  Havernick set the goal that by the last week of a
  5-week intervention, the student would be found
  to use all five of the subskills on at least 4
  out of 5 days.

89
Activity Academic Enablers Observational
Checklist

• At your tables
• Review the Academic Enablers Observational
  Checklists.
• Discuss how your school might use the existing
  examples or use the general format to create
  your own observational checklists.

90
Managing Difficult Student Behaviors The
Defensive Management ApproachJim
Wrightwww.interventioncentral.org
91
Big Ideas in Student Behavior Management
92
Big Ideas Similar Behaviors May Stem from Very
Different Root Causes (Kratochwill, Elliott,
Carrington Rotto, 1990)

• Behavior is not random but follows purposeful
  patterns.Students who present with the same
  apparent surface behaviors may have very
  different drivers (underlying reasons) that
  explain why those behaviors occur.A students
  problem behaviors must be carefully identified
  and analyzed to determine the drivers that
  support them.

Source Kratochwill, T. R., Elliott, S. N.,
Carrington Rotto, P. (1990). Best practices in
behavioral consultation. In A. Thomas and J.
Grimes (Eds.). Best practices in school
psychology-II (pp. 147169). Silver Spring, MD
National Association of School Psychologists..
93
Common Root Causes or Drivers for Behaviors
Include

• Power/Control
• Protection/Escape/Avoidance
• Attention
• Acceptance/Affiliation
• Expression of Self
• Gratification
• Justice/Revenge

Source Witt, J. C., Daly, E. M., Noell, G.
(2000). Functional assessments A step-by-step
guide to solving academic and behavior problems.
Longmont, CO Sopris West..pp. 3-4.
94
From the TrenchesOffice Disciplinary Referral

Disrespect toward teachers. Yelled at me while I
was helping him with his assignment. Told him to
cool down and sit in the center and he started up
again. Finally, I asked him to leave. Have
called home twice and spoke to grandmother about
tardiness, attendance, and behavior.

95
From the TrenchesOffice Disciplinary Referral

L. was sleeping in class. I told him twice to
wake up and read along with class. He did so,
albeit reluctantly. The third time he fell
asleep I buzzed the office to tell them he was
coming down, with a referral to follow. He
cursed and threw his book in the book box.

96
From the TrenchesOffice Disciplinary Referral

For some reason, R. wants to keep challenging me.
Today he was being persistent that he wanted to
sit on a table not in his chair. This was after
I asked him to stop talking 4-5 times, thats
all. I sent him to the office again, second time.

97
Inference Moving Beyond the Margins of the
Known

• An inference is a tentative conclusion without
  direct or conclusive support from available data.
  All hypotheses are, by definition, inferences. It
  is critical that problem analysts make
  distinctions between what is known and what is
  inferred or hypothesized.Low-level inferences
  should be exhausted prior to the use of
  high-level inferences. p. 161

Source Christ, T. (2008). Best practices in
problem analysis. In A. Thomas J. Grimes
(Eds.), Best practices in school psychology V
(pp. 159-176).
98
Examples of High vs. Low Inference Hypotheses
An 11th-grade student does poorly on tests and
quizzes in math. Homework is often incomplete.
He frequently shows up late for class and does
not readily participate in group discussions.
99
Big Ideas Behavior is a Continuous Stream
(Schoenfeld Farmer, 1970)

• Individuals are always performing SOME type of
  behavior watching the instructor, sleeping,
  talking to a neighbor, completing a worksheet
  (behavior stream).
• When students are fully engaged in academic
  behaviors, they are less likely to get off-task
  and display problem behaviors.
• Academic tasks that are clearly understood,
  elicit student interest, provide a high rate of
  student success, and include teacher
  encouragement and feedback are most likely to
  effectively capture the students behavior
  stream.

Source Schoenfeld, W. N., Farmer, J. (1970).
Reinforcement schedules and the behavior
stream. In W. N. Schoenfeld (Ed.), The theory
of reinforcement schedules (pp. 215245). New
York Appleton-Century-Crofts.
100
Big Ideas Academic Delays Can Be a Potent Cause
of Behavior Problems (Witt, Daly, Noell, 2000)

• Student academic problems cause many school
  behavior problems.
• Whether a students problem is a behavior
  problem or an academic one, we recommend starting
  with a functional academic assessment, since
  often behavior problems occur when students
  cannot or will not do required academic work.

Source Witt, J. C., Daly, E. M., Noell, G.
(2000). Functional assessments A step-by-step
guide to solving academic and behavior problems.
Longmont, CO Sopris West, p. 13
101
ABC The Core of Behavior Management

• ....at the core of behavioral interventions is
  the three-term contingency consisting of an
  antecedent, behavior, and consequence.

A
C
B
Source Kern, L., Choutka, C. M., Sokol, N. G.
(2002). Assessment-based antecedent interventions
used in natural settings to reduce challenging
behaviors An analysis of the literature.
Education Treatment of Children, 25, 113-130.
p. 113.
102
ABC Events as Antecedents
Discriminative Stimulus An antecedent can
become associated with certain desired outcomes
and thus trigger problem behaviors.
If the consequence associated with the behavior
is reinforcing for the student, then the
antecedent or trigger can serve to signal
(discriminate) that reinforcement is coming.
A
C
B
Source Kern, L., Choutka, C. M., Sokol, N. G.
(2002). Assessment-based antecedent interventions
used in natural settings to reduce challenging
behaviors An analysis of the literature.
Education Treatment of Children, 25, 113-130.
p. 113.
103
Antecedent Strategies to Manage Behavior
Proactive Changes to the Environment

• Antecedent interventions typically involve some
  type of environmental rearrangement.

Source Kern, L., Choutka, C. M., Sokol, N. G.
(2002). Assessment-based antecedent interventions
used in natural settings to reduce challenging
behaviors An analysis of the literature.
Education Treatment of Children, 25, 113-130.
p. 113.
104
Advantages of Antecedent Strategies vs. Reactive
Approaches

1. Can prevent behavior problems from occurring
2. Are typically quick acting
3. Can result in an instructional environment that
   better promotes student learning

Source Kern, L. Clemens, N. H. (2007).
Antecedent strategies to promote appropriate
classroom behavior. Psychology in the Schools,
44, 65-75.
105
Defensive Behavior Management The Power of
Teacher Preparation Jim Wrightwww.interventionc
entral.org
106
Defensive Management A Method to Avoid Power
Struggles

• Defensive management (Fields, 2004) is a
  teacher-friendly six-step approach to avert
  student-teacher power struggles that emphasizes
  providing proactive instructional support to the
  student, elimination of behavioral triggers in
  the classroom setting, relationship-building,
  strategic application of defusing techniques when
  needed, and use of a reconnection conference
  after behavioral incidents to promote student
  reflection and positive behavior change.

Source Fields, B. (2004). Breaking the cycle of
office referrals and suspensions Defensive
management. Educational Psychology in Practice,
20, 103-115.
107
Defensive Management Six Steps

1. Understanding the Student Problem and Using
   Proactive Strategies to Prevent Triggers. The
   teacher collects information--through direct
   observation and perhaps other means--about
   specific instances of student problem behavior
   and the instructional components and other
   factors surrounding them. The teacher analyzes
   this information to discover specific trigger
   events that seem to set off the problem
   behavior(s) (e.g., lack of skills failure to
   understand directions).The instructor then
   adjusts instruction to provide appropriate
   student support (e.g., providing the student with
   additional instruction in a skill repeating
   directions and writing them on the board).

Source Fields, B. (2004). Breaking the cycle of
office referrals and suspensions Defensive
management. Educational Psychology in Practice,
20, 103-115.
108
Defensive Management Six Steps

1. Promoting Positive Teacher-Student Interactions.
   Early in each class session, the teacher has at
   least one positive verbal interaction with the
   student. Throughout the class period, the teacher
   continues to interact in positive ways with the
   student (e.g., brief conversation, smile, thumbs
   up, praise comment after a student remark in
   large-group discussion, etc.). In each
   interaction, the teacher adopts a genuinely
   accepting, polite, respectful tone.

Source Fields, B. (2004). Breaking the cycle of
office referrals and suspensions Defensive
management. Educational Psychology in Practice,
20, 103-115.
109
Defensive Management Six Steps

1. Scanning for Warning Indicators. During the class
   session, the teacher monitors the target
   students behavior for any behavioral indicators
   suggesting that the student is becoming
   frustrated or angry. Examples of behaviors that
   precede non-compliance or open defiance may
   include stopping work muttering or complaining
   becoming argumentative interrupting others
   leaving his or her seat throwing objects, etc.).

Source Fields, B. (2004). Breaking the cycle of
office referrals and suspensions Defensive
management. Educational Psychology in Practice,
20, 103-115.
110
Defensive Management Six Steps

1. Exercising Emotional Restraint. Whenever the
   student begins to display problematic behaviors,
   the teacher makes an active effort to remain
   calm. To actively monitor his or her emotional
   state, the teacher tracks physiological cues such
   as increased muscle tension and heart rate, as
   well as fear, annoyance, anger, or other negative
   emotions. The teacher also adopts calming or
   relaxation strategies that work for him or her in
   the face of provocative student behavior, such as
   taking a deep breath or counting to 10 before
   responding.

Source Fields, B. (2004). Breaking the cycle of
office referrals and suspensions Defensive
management. Educational Psychology in Practice,
20, 103-115.
111
Defensive Management Six Steps

1. Using Defusing Tactics. If the student begins to
   escalate to non-compliant, defiant, or
   confrontational behavior (e.g., arguing,
   threatening, other intentional verbal
   interruptions), the teacher draws from a range of
   possible descalating strategies to defuse the
   situation. Such strategies can include private
   conversation with the student while maintaining a
   calm voice, open-ended questions, paraphrasing
   the students concerns, acknowledging the
   students emotions, etc.

Source Fields, B. (2004). Breaking the cycle of
office referrals and suspensions Defensive
management. Educational Psychology in Practice,
20, 103-115.
112
Defensive Management Six Steps

1. Conducting a Reconnection Conference. Soon
   after any in-class incident of student
   non-compliance, defiance, or confrontation, the
   teacher makes a point to meet with the student to
   discuss the behavioral incident, identify the
   triggers in the classroom environment that led to
   the problem, and brainstorm with the student to
   create a written plan to prevent the reoccurrence
   of such an incident. Throughout this conference,
   the teacher maintains a supportive, positive,
   polite, and respectful tone.

Source Fields, B. (2004). Breaking the cycle of
office referrals and suspensions Defensive
management. Educational Psychology in Practice,
20, 103-115.
113
Group Activity Offer Advice to a Troubled
Classroom

• At your tables
• View the video clip of the teachers interaction
  with Ryan in the middle school classroom
• Use the six-step defensive behavior management
  framework to come up with ideas to recommend to
  this teacher to help her to manage Ryans
  behavior more effectively.

• Defensive Behavior Management 6 Steps
• Understanding the Student Problem and Using
  Proactive Strategies to Prevent Triggers.
• Promoting Positive Teacher-Student Interactions.
• Scanning for Warning Indicators.
• Exercising Emotional Restraint.
• Using Defusing Tactics.
• Conducting a Student Reconnection Conference.

114
(No Transcript)
115
Activity Defensive Behavior Management

• In your teams
• Discuss the Defensive Behavior Management
  framework.
• How can you use a framework like this as a tool
  to help general-education teachers to better
  manage student behaviors?

• Defensive Behavior Management 6 Steps
• Understanding the Student Problem and Using
  Proactive Strategies to Prevent Triggers.
• Promoting Positive Teacher-Student Interactions.
• Scanning for Warning Indicators.
• Exercising Emotional Restraint.
• Using Defusing Tactics.
• Conducting a Student Reconnection Conference.

116
Extinguishing the Blaze Avoiding Power
Struggles and Helping Students to Keep Their
Cool Jim Wrightwww.interventioncentral.org
117
Extinguishing the Blaze Teacher Tips
While you can never predict what behaviors your
students might bring into your classroom, you
will usually achieve the best outcomes by
remaining calm, following pre-planned
intervention strategies for misbehavior, and
acting with consistency and fairness when
intervening with or disciplining students.
118
Extinguishing the Blaze Selected Ideas

• Allow the Student a 'Cool-Down' Break (Long,
  Morse, Newman, 1980). Select a corner of the
  room (or area outside the classroom with adult
  supervision) where the target student can take a
  brief 'respite break' whenever he or she feels
  angry or upset. Be sure to make cool-down breaks
  available to all students in the classroom, to
  avoid singling out only those children with
  anger-control issues. Whenever a student becomes
  upset and defiant, offer to talk the situation
  over with that student once he or she has calmed
  down and then direct the student to the cool-down
  corner. (E.g., "Thomas, I want to talk with you
  about what is upsetting you, but first you need
  to calm down. Take five minutes in the cool-down
  corner and then come over to my desk so we can
  talk.")

119
Extinguishing the Blaze Selected Ideas

• Ask Open-Ended Questions (Lanceley, 2001). If a
  teacher who is faced with a confrontational
  student does not know what triggered that
  students defiant response, the instructor can
  ask neutral, open-ended questions to collect more
  information before responding. You can pose
  who, what, where, when, and how
  questions to more fully understand the problem
  situation and identify possible solutions. Some
  sample questions are "What do you think made you
  angry when you were talking with Billy?" and
  "Where were you when you realized that you had
  misplaced your science book?" One caution Avoid
  asking why"questions (e.g., "Why did you get
  into that fight with Jerry?") because they can
  imply that you are blaming the student.

120
Extinguishing the Blaze Selected Ideas

• Emphasize the Positive in Teacher Requests
  (Braithwaite, 2001). When an instructor's request
  has a positive 'spin', that teacher is less
  likely to trigger a power struggle and more
  likely to gain student compliance. Whenever
  possible, avoid using negative phrasing (e.g.,
  "If you don't return to your seat, I cant help
  you with your assignment"). Instead, restate
  requests in positive terms (e.g., "I will be over
  to help you on the assignment just as soon as you
  return to your seat").

121
Extinguishing the Blaze Selected Ideas

• Give Problem Students Frequent Positive
  Attention (Sprick, Borgmeier, Nolet, 2002).
  Teachers should make an effort to give positive
  attention or praise to problem students at least
  three times more frequently than they reprimand
  them. The teacher gives the student the attention
  or praise during moments when that student is
  acting appropriately--and keeps track of how
  frequently they give positive attention and
  reprimands to the student. This heavy dosing of
  positive attention and praise can greatly improve
  the teachers relationship with problem students.

122
Extinguishing the Blaze Selected Ideas

• Have the Student Participate in Creating a
  Behavior Plan (Walker, Colvin, Ramsey, 1995).
  Students can feel a greater sense of ownership
  when they are invited to contribute to their
  behavior management plan. Students also tend to
  know better than anyone else what triggers will
  set off their problem behaviors and what
  strategies they find most effective in calming
  themselves and avoiding conflicts or other
  behavioral problems.

123
Extinguishing the Blaze Selected Ideas
Keep Responses Calm, Brief, and Businesslike
(Mayer, 2000 Sprick, Borgmeier, Nolet, 2002).
Because teacher sarcasm or lengthy negative
reprimands can trigger defiant student behavior,
instructors should respond to the student in a
'neutral', business-like, calm voice. Also, keep
responses brief when addressing the non-compliant
student. Short teacher responses give the defiant
student less control over the interaction and can
also prevent instructors from inadvertently
'rewarding' misbehaving students with lots of
negative adult attention.
124
Extinguishing the Blaze Selected Ideas
Listen Actively (Lanceley, 1999 Long, Morse,
Newman, 1980). The teacher demonstrates a sincere
desire to understand a students concerns when he
or she actively listens to and then summarizes
those concerns--that is, summing up the crucial
points of that concern (paraphrasing) in his or
her own words. Examples of paraphrase comments
include 'Let me be sure that I understand you
correctly', 'Are you telling me that?', 'It
sounds to me like these are your concerns' When
teachers engage in 'active listening' by using
paraphrasing, they demonstrate a respect for the
student's point of view and can also improve
their own understanding of the student's problem.
125
Extinguishing the Blaze Selected Ideas
Offer the Student a Face-Saving Out (Thompson
Jenkins, 1993). Try this face-saving
de-escalation tactic Ask the defiant student,
"Is there anything that we can work out together
so that you can stay in the classroom and be
successful?" Such a statement treats the student
with dignity, models negotiation as a positive
means for resolving conflict, and demonstrates
that