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Stereotyping

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Title: Stereotyping


1
Stereotyping
2
What Are Stereotypes?
  • There is neither time nor opportunity for
    intimate acquaintances. Instead we notice a trait
    which marks a well known type and fill in the
    rest of the picture by means of the stereotypes
    we carry about in our heads.
  • Our stereotyped world is not necessarily the
    world we should like it to be. It is simply the
    kind of world we expect it to be.
  • Walter Lippmann
    (1922)

3
Stereotype Components
  • Culturally shared beliefs
  • cognitive component (beliefs)
  • affective component (feelings)
  • behavioural component (actions)
  • Categorical associations
  • men are ?
  • accountants are?
  • Italians are?

4
How De We Learn Stereotypes?
5
A Chilling Example!
Children (24-28 months) touch more own sex
gender-typed toys (Levy,1999).
6
Who Should Repair the Car?
  • Levy, Sadovsky, Troseth (2000)
  • preschoolers (3-4 years) viewed men as more
    competent than women in male sex-typed jobs and
    women as more competent than men in feminine
    jobs.

7
Habits of Thought
  • What happens if childhood socialization
    repeatedly furnishes one with stereotype-related
    beliefs?
  • Do stereotypes become habits of mind?

8
Is Stereotype Activation Inevitable?
  • every event has certain marks that serve as a
    cue to bring the category of prejudgment into
    actionA person with dark brown skin will
    activate whatever concept of African American is
    dominant in our mind.
  • Allport (1954, p. 21)
  • the mere presentation of a stimulus person
    activates certain classification processes that
    occur automatically and without conscious
    intent.
  • Brewer (1988, p. 5)

9
  • because the stereotype has been frequently
    activated in the past, it is a well-learned set
    of associations that is automatically activated
    in the presence of a member (or symbolic
    equivalent) of the target group.
  • Devine (1989, p. 6)

10
The Basic Problem!
  • On exposure to a target, what gets activated in
    mind?

11
Measuring Stereotype ActivationSemantic Priming
Tasks
12
Measuring Stereotype ActivationSemantic Priming
Tasks
Forgetful
skillful
13
Automatic ActivationSome Early Evidence
  • Dovidio et al. (1986)
  • stereotypes are knowledge structures
  • associative networks
  • semantic priming to access associative
    knowledge
  • letter string task
  • doctor/nurse
  • doctor/butter

14
Dovidio et als (1986) ParadigmCould X ever be
true of Y?
  • Task (verification task)
  • participants presented with a priming label
    (i.e., black or white) followed shortly
    afterwards by a personality trait (e.g., musical)
    or non-person descriptor (e.g., metallic)
  • Traits
  • White Black
  • ambitious musical
  • practical sensitive
  • conventional lazy
  • stubborn imitative

15
  • Results
  • participants responded more quickly when
    stereotypic than non-stereotypic items were
    presented
  • Problems?
  • task demands (triggering category activation)
  • labels (or words and images functionally
    equivalent?)

16
The Invisible PrimePurdue Gurtman (1990)
  • kind
  • is the word favorable or unfavorable?
  • traits preceded by subliminal labels (old or
    young)
  • Results - facilitatory priming observed
  • Problems - words, evaluative (rather than
    semantic) priming

17
Devines (1989) Two-Process Model
  • power of childhood socialization
  • acquiring cultural beliefs
  • societal knowledge vs. personal beliefs
  • individual differences in prejudice
  • high vs. low prejudice
  • components of stereotyping
  • automatic activation
  • controlled inhibition
  • replacing stereotypes with personal beliefs

18
Knowledge of Cultural Stereotypes
  • Stereotype Contents
  • bagpipes
  • booze
  • stingy
  • bigots humanitarians (Devine, 1989)

19
Evaluate Donald Paradigm (Devine, 1989)
  • Tasks
  • Phase 1 parafoveal vigilance task (Negroes,
    lazy, blues, Blacks, Africa, basketball)
  • Phase 2 person evaluation (Donald - Srull
    Wyer, 1979) - ambiguously hostile behaviours
  • Results high-P participants rated Donald to be
    more hostile than did low-P participants

20
Automatic StereotypingA Slight Modification
  • Lepore Brown (1997)
  • categories vs. traits (Blacks vs. lazy) - what
    activates the
  • stereotype?
  • category primes only high-P participants
    activate the stereotype
  • trait primes both high-P and low-P participants
    activate the
  • stereotype
  • individual differences in stereotype activation
    (Locke et al., 1994 Wittenbrink et al., 1997)

21
Challenging OrthodoxyIs Stereotype Activation
Really Inevitable?
  • triggering stereotype activation (are images and
    words equivalent?)

Belly Dancer
22
Determinants of Stereotype Activation Target
Salience
  • frequency of occurrence
  • are you unusual?
  • immediate context
  • are you contextually distinctive?
  • processing goals
  • are you relevant to my current processing
    concerns?

23
Statistical FrequencyLanger et al. (1976)
24
Solo or Token StatusTaylor Fiske (1978)
25
Processing Goals
  • chronic states of the person (Moskowitz et al.
    2004)
  • traits, motives, goals
  • transitory factors (Macrae et al., 1997)
  • temporary goals

26
Stereotype ActivationAlways or Sometimes?
27
Stereotypes as Mental ToolsGilbert Hixon
(1991)
  • anyone who has ever lent a socket wrench to a
    forgetful neighbor knows that a tool is useful
    only if one can find it. Stereotypes are forms of
    information and, as such, are thought to be
    stored in memory in a dormant state until they
    are activated for use.
  • Gilbert Hixon (1991, p. 510)
  • attention and stereotyping

28
Gilbert Hixon (1991)Busyness and Stereotyping
  • Task
  • participants observe a woman (Caucasian or
    Asian) turning over cards with a single word
    fragment written on each card.
  • POLI_E
  • complete the fragment with the first word that
    comes to mind (SHY, SHORT, RICE) - participants
    busy (digit rehearsal) or non-busy (control)
  • Results only non-busy participants activate the
    stereotype (i.e.,
  • conditional automaticity)

29
Processing GoalsThe Inattentive Shopper (Macrae
et al. 1997)
30
Processing Goals
ambitious (emotional) (flubitorso)
3 Tasks animacy (conceptual) dot
(perceptual) detection
31
Category Accessibility

Macrae et al. (1997)
32
Accessing Stereotypical Knowledge
  • Macrae et al. (1997) in spot of bother

beyond the hopeful implication that
dermatologists are unlikely to stereotype their
patients, what is the real-world relevance of
studies involving such pre-semantic processing
goals? Bargh (1999)
33
Context and Stereotype ActivationWittenbrink et
al. (2001)
In an evaluative priming task, activation of
African-American stereotype was moderated by the
context in which targets were located.
34
Lecture 4Stereotype Application
35
Why Do People Apply Stereotypes?
  • personality approaches
  • socio-cultural accounts
  • cognitive perspective

36
Applying StereotypesPossessing a Dodgy
Personality
  • authoritarian personality (Adorno et al., 1950)
  • intra-psychic conflict from childhood
    (internalized values of the father) is projected
    to other people (members of minority groups
    ethnic, relgious, political) - societal
    scapegoating.

37
Applying StereotypesLearning to Discriminate
  • socio-cultural approaches (e.g., realistic
    conflict theory, Sherif Sherif, 1953)
  • stereotypes are conceptualized as negative
    beliefs about a group that serve to legitimize
    the existing social structure (i.e., system
    justification)

38
Applying StereotypesCognitive Efficiency
  • cognitive perspective (Hamilton, 1981)
  • stereotyping is a product of category
    activation and basic cognitive limitations.

39
Applying StereotypesBasic Paradox
  • perils of stereotypical thinking
  • discrimination
  • prejudice
  • legal sanctions
  • benefits of stereotypical thinking
  • cognitive efficiency

40
What Can Stereotyping Do For You?
  • content-related effects
  • structural effects (processing consequences)
  • perception
  • memory
  • attention

41
Accessing Stereotype ContentsTarget Enrichment
  • semantic knowledge (Fiske Neuberg, 1990)
  • traits
  • behaviours
  • opinions
  • lifestyle
  • indirect person knowledge

42
Stereotypes and Information ProcessingPerceptual
Effects
  • does stereotype application moderate the ease
    with which people can detect information in the
    world?
  • if so, which type of information is most
    facilitated?

43
Activating Social StereotypesA Functional
Analysis
  • stereotypical thinking is functional (Allport,
    1954)
  • reducing the information-processing burden
  • ease of detection
  • perceptual identification
  • measurement issues - climbing inside the head

44
The Need For SpeedCategorical Person Perception
is Efficient
  • perils of a cluttered mind
  • enter the cognitive miser
  • target simplification/elaboration
  • some cognitive benefits
  • stimulus location
  • stimulus identification
  • category priming

45
Find the Word (Stereotype Priming)Congruent vs.
Irrelevant
  • Q H A P P Y T V
  • D P V M N I O B
  • A E L Q B Y V T
  • R N M K V R E A
  • I P M I V W M L
  • N C C N Y T A L
  • G M L D Y T V R
  • G S H N L R I O

46
Find the Words
Number of Words
Macrae
et al. (1994).
47
Stimulus Identification
  • repeated presentation of degraded words
  • dot density mask
  • whats the word?
  • number of trials taken

48
v
49
(No Transcript)
50
Identify the Word
Number of Presentations
Macrae et al.
(1994)
51
Stereotypes and Information ProcessingAttentiona
l Effects
  • does stereotype application preserve valuable
    attentional resources?
  • if so, when does this take place?

52
Person ImpressionsWith and Without Stereotypes
  • Nigel Julian
  • (doctor) (artist)
  • caring creative
  • honest temperamental
  • reliable sensitive
  • responsible unconventional
  • upstanding individualistic
  • unlucky fearless
  • forgetful active
  • passive cordial
  • clumsy progressive
  • enthusiastic generous

53
Person Memory
Macrae et al.
(1994)
54
Knowledge about Indonesia?
Macrae et al. (1994)
55
Efficiency and Automaticity
  • stereotypical efficiency - conscious or
    unconscious?
  • overt or covert allocation of attention?
  • probe-reaction tasks
  • turn off the sound

56
Person ImpressionsWith and Without Visible and
Invisible Stereotypes
  • Nigel Julian
  • (doctor) (artist)
  • caring creative
  • honest temperamental
  • reliable sensitive
  • responsible unconventional
  • upstanding individualistic
  • unlucky fearless
  • forgetful active
  • passive cordial
  • clumsy progressive
  • enthusiastic generous
  • 3 conditions
  • category-supraliminal
  • category-subliminal
  • no category

Auditory Probe Reaction Task
57
How Quickly Can You Turn Off the Sound?
Macrae et al. (1994)
58
Stereotyping is Efficient
  • Stereotypes
  • (i) guide perception
  • (ii) organize memories
  • (iii) preserve attention
  • Is stereotyping Intentional?
  • awareness
  • consent

59
When are Stereotypes Most Likely to Be Deployed?
  • Stereotypes save people the trouble of thinking
    (Gilbert Hixon, 1991)
  • Stereotypes as judgmental heuristics
  • motivation (e.g., involvement)
  • speed (e.g., times pressures)
  • attention (e.g., competing tasks)

60
Stereotype ApplicationA Brief Review
  • Task Complexity
  • simple vs. complex judgments (Bodenhausen
    Lichtenstein, 1987)
  • information overload (Bodenhausen Wyer, 1985)
  • Time Pressures
  • Dijker Koomen (1996)
  • Dual Tasking
  • cognitive load (Gilbert Hixon, 1991)
  • Involvement with Target
  • outcome dependence (Neuberg Fiske, 1987)
  • accountability (Tetlock, 1983)


61
Are You A Morning Person?Bodenhausen (1990)
62
Reaching Your Peak
  • attention and stereotyping
  • stereotypes as heuristics
  • laboratory manipulations
  • naturalistic factors
  • circadian variations
  • morning vs. evening people

63
Meeting Linda
  • Linda is 31 years old, single, outspoken, and
    very bright. She majored in philosophy. As a
    student, she was deeply concerned with issues of
    discrimination and social justice, and also
    participated in anti-nuclear demonstrations.
  • Which of the following is more likely to be true?
  • Linda is a bank teller.
  • Linda is a bank teller and is active in the
    feminist movement.

64
Conjunction Fallacy
  • the erroneous belief that the joint probability
    of two events is greater than the probability of
    either of the constituent events separately.

65
Committing the Conjunction Fallacy
Bodenhausen (1990)
66
Unresolved IssuesSo What Exactly Gets Activated?
67
The Problem of Multiple Construal
  • categorical competition
  • the winner takes it all
  • but where do the losers go?
  • consequences of category dominance

68
A Wee Digression - Is That My Beer?The Case of
Competing Actions
69
Is That My (Car) Parking Space?The Case of
Competing Memories
70
What Does It Mean?Linguistic Ambiguity
  • Under cover of darkness, Brian slipped into the
    port.
  • It can be fun playing with your hair.
  • It happened at the bank.

71
Resolving Mental ConflictInhibition
  • evolved solutions
  • cognitive inhibition
  • dampening competing representations
  • conflict resolution
  • inhibition and category activation

72
The Case of the Asian WomanMacrae et al. (1995)
73
Priming Categories
  • dynamics of multiple construal
  • priming categories
  • winners losers
  • are the losers inhibited?

74
Experiment 1Parafoveal Priming
  • Phase 1 - parafoveal priming (women or Chinese)
  • Phase 2 - view videotape (Chinese woman reading a
    book)
  • Phase 3 - lexical decision task (category
    accessibility)

75
Stereotype Accessibility
Macrae et al. (1995)
76
Priming Through Behavior
77
Experiment 2
  • Phase 1 - view videotape
  • eating with chopsticks vs. applying cosmetics
  • Phase 2 - lexical decision task (category
    accessibility)

78
Stereotype Accessibility
Macrae et al. (1995)
79
Inhibition and Category Selection
  • dealing with conflict
  • cognitive inhibition
  • nature of inhibition
  • lateral vs. strategic
  • role of processing goals
  • Sinclair Kunda (1999)

80
Motivation and InhibitionSinclair Kunda (1999)
Favorable feedback - activate doctor, inhibit
Black Unfavorable feedback - activate Black,
inhibit doctor
81
Consequences of Category Activation
  • identity salience
  • which identity dominates
  • behavioral consequences
  • stereotype threat
  • scholastic performance (Steele Aronson, 1995)
  • math test, diagnostic of abilities
  • competing identities
  • performance conflicts

82
Math TestShih et al. (1999)
American Canadian samples
Asian vs. female identity
83
Task Performance
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