Akbar, 1542-1605

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Akbar, 1542-1605
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Early challenges

• At the time of Humayuns death Akbar is 14 and
  learning the ropes of government as the new
  Governor of Punjab
• Bairam Khan, the Persian Shia General is his
  mentor
• The other influential person in his life is Maham
  Anaga, his old nurse
• Soon after Humayuns death, the general Hemu
  leads the Suri forces towards Delhi. Bairam Khan
  and Akbar defeat them decisively at the Second
  Battle of Panipat in 1556

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Who is in Charge?

• During Akbars minority Bairam Khan ruled as his
  Gaurdian
• Maham Anaga and a clique of supporters wished to
  use Akbars emotional connections to challenge
  Bairam Khan
• The Royal women, including Hamida Banu Begum
  disliked each factionBairam Khan due to his
  affiliation and alleged favoritism of fellow
  Shias, Maham Anaga for her low origins and her
  sons uncouth behavior

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Akbar comes into his own

• While Bairam Khan was a competent administrator
  and re-conquered much of the old Mughal
  territories, his power was growing
• By 1560 Akbar was old enough to dismiss the
  General, who left for a pilgrimage to Mecca
• Adham Khan and his mother proved to be much
  harder to dislodge
• The Malwa campaign and Baz Bahadur
• The intrusion into the harem, Adham Khans death
  1561

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Different Directions

• Expansion of EmpireRajasthan, Central India,
  Sind, Kashmir, Ahmadnagar (see map)
• Ties with Rajput ruling houses
• Setting up of a centralized bureaucracy
• Balancing power groupsTurani, Irani, Rajput,
  Uzbeki, etc.
• Patronage of Arts and architechture
• Experiments with spirituality
• Reforms of law, patronage of different groups

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Akbars Perspective

• Appears to have favored a practical compromise
  between Timurid traditions and local South Asian
  traditions
• Keenly aware of South Asian culture, taboos,
  symbols
• Functionally illiterate, but with mastery over
  informationadministrative, cultural, music, art,
  theology
• Extremely independent, willing to try radical
  solutions
• Hot tempered and sometimes restlesslearnt slowly
  to discipline himself
• Attempted to attract different men of talent to
  his court

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Symbols for a new Empire

• Marriage alliances and diplomacy
• Tilak, Jharoka, and the new turban and hairstyle
• But also continued use of khtuba and khillat
• The court as a miniature representative of the
  empirediversity and hierarchy
• Personal and charismatic leadershippersonalized
  interviews
• Institutionalization of debates in court as a way
  of hearing from different groups
• An absolutist monarchy (with a warmer, fuzzier
  image)

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A Young Akbar in his court
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Akbars Spiritual Journey

• Early interest in Chisti Sufis of Ajmer
• 1562 pilgrimage and birth of Prince Salim
• Early translations of Mahabharata and
  Ramayanconversations with yogis (ascetics),
  Brahmins, Jains, and others
• Revocation of Jizya1564
• The Ibadat Khana debatesincludes Shia, Sunni,
  Sufi, different Hindu groups, Jains, and Jesuits
• Religious grants extended to non-muslims
• Emperor declared the final legal authority

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Jesuits at Akbars Court
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Some consequences of new Religious Policies

• Sulh-i Kul (Peace with all) does create good will
  towards the court for a majority
• Effectively creates a somewhat secularist Empire
  (some historians see the Din-i Ilahi cult
  differently)
• Orthodox ulema and more conservative Muslims are
  hostile to changes
• Imperial qazi (judge) and sadr (grants manager)
  rebel
• Unflattering history by Badauni reveals discontent

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Differences in Opinion seen in the source

• Abul Fazls Ain-i Akabri and Akbarnama
• flattering images, Akbar portrayed in an almost
  quasi-divine way
• Badauni very critical, bitter about debates,Fazl,
  and heresy
• Jesuits and other travelers useful texts, but
  misunderstand Akbars interest as conversion
• Akbars own understanding and position is often
  lost, but not impossible to find
• Motivations can be multiple from personal quest
  to imperial ambition
• Long reign shows a steady progression towards a
  unique understanding of the place of religion in
  peoples lives

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Break
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Foundations of an Imperial style

• 1556-1605

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A Movable Empire

• Although Akbar designated three Imperial cities
  Agra, Fatehpur Sikri, Lahore his reign was one
  of constant movement
• The Imperial campa massive and magnificent tent
  city probably was most used
• The reforms in the economy, court rules,
  finances, and family life facilitated this mobile
  lifestyle, but also bring into question the ways
  in which scholars have understood Akbars court

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The moving Court

• Fixed places for Emperor and royal family,
  enclosed within an armed camp
• Provisions for markets, banking, food, fodder,
  arts and crafts
• Use of scouts, engineers, purchasing agents to
  make travel easier
• Two sets of royal pavilions, one for use, one to
  travel ahead
• Army, artisans, soldiers, family travel with
  court
• Evidence of the independent movement of royal
  women Senior women, rajput princess to natal
  homes and back, hunting parties, pilgrimages

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Imperial Cities

• Movement further facilitated by the presence of
  Imperial cities (Delhi, Lahore, Agra, Sikri)
• Focus points for Imperial architecture,
  patronage, new courtly styles
• Also several forts in key locations such as
  Allahabad, Chunar, Ajmer, etc. with storehouses
  of wealth, treasury, reserve forces

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Allahabad Fort
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Mobility and Empire

• The Emperors mobility facilitated the new style
  of administration built on efficiency,
  communication, and information
• Constant communication with newswriters
  (akhbarnawis) was facilitated with reports from
  provincial government and frequent inspections by
  the Emperor himself
• The Emperors mobile court also facilitated
  one-on-one audiences with lower nobility, rural
  elite, and helped to limit the possibility of
  rebellion
• The growing economy and the mobility of capital
  also aided travel
• Remittances of mansabdars (officials)
• Loans made to army units
• Investment by individuals in trade
  (maryam-us-zamanis ships)
• Shipment of grain

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The Trading Networks

• Building of new roadsextension of Grand Trunk
  Rd.
• Abolishment of local tolls and taxes on trade
• Faujdars (imperial commanders) charged with
  keeping peace
• New currency regulations lift the value of Mughal
  coinage
• New carvanserais, kos minars, baolis built
• Riverine systems dredged, port regulations
  formed, provisions made for the care of foreign
  travelers

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The new Hybrid Imperial Style

• Monumental architecture in red sandstone and
  marble
• Stylistic motifs borrowed from indigenous
  stylesdecorative motifs, pavilions, chattris

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Panch Mahal in Fatehpur Sikri
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Interpreting Akbars designs

• An imperial camp in stone?Timurid roots
• An homage to the chisti Sufi designating the
  Imperial space as sacred (Fatehpur Sikri)
• New Architecture reflects new policy of borrowing
  and mixing Indigenous elements
• Reflects an entirely new way of thinking about
  urban planning and the new domestic space
• Can all of these be true?

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Decorations from the Kacchwa palaces at Amber
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Detail of wall at Fatehpur Sikri
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Amber Hindu Temple, Mughal residence?
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The Imperial Sacred Space

• Sheikh Chistis tomb in Sikri
• Note the serpentine brackets
• Mixture of Islamic and indigenous building styles
• Ritual use of screens

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Ibadat Khana at Fatehpur Sikri

• Radial arrangement of space
• Elevated column/throne
• Architecture mirroring new policy of Sulh-i Kul?

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Multiplicity of Motives?

• Humayuns tomb in the new style
• The hasht-bihisht symbolism in garden and
  building
• The posthumous titles denoting sacredness
• Containing both Timurid and Indigenous themes

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Hybridity in Other arts

• Notice central Asia/Chinese influence in the
  treatment of rocks
• Attention to details of Krishna mythology
• Mughal style apparent in the depiction of
  peopleindividualized portraits