3.1 The Text of the Old Testament

1
3.1 The Text of the Old Testament

• 1. Proto-Masoretic Masoretic Texts
• 2. Pre-Samaritan Samaritan Pentateuch
• 3. Septuagint
• 4. Targumim
• 5. Peshitta
• 6. Vulgate

2
Introduction

• R. Ishmael "My son, be careful, because your
  work is the work of heaven should you omit
  (even) one letter or add (even) one letter, the
  whole world would be destroyed" b. Sot. 20a

3
Introduction

• There are many witnesses to the Old Testament
  (First Testament). The Hebrew is the easiest to
  deal with, while the translations are dealt with
  in a secondary manner, due to the problem of
  retroversion.

4
Introduction

• Until the discovery of the Dead Sea Scrolls,
  however the earliest Hebrew witness to the
  Scriptures were the Nash Papyri (1st-2nd century
  CE).

5
Introduction

• Although early Church Fathers were already
  interested in comparing the Hebrew text along
  with different Greek versions, it was Origen, in
  the third century that produced a 6 columned
  Greek Hebrew edition of the Bible called the
  Hexapla.
• http//rosetta.reltech.org/Ebind/docs/TC/

6
Introduction

• Although Jerome, ultimately relied on the Greek
  text of the Old Testament, he compared his
  translation and commentaries with Hebrew
  manuscripts of his time, along with the older
  Latin version.

7
1. Proto-Masoretic Masoretic Texts

• "The name Masoretic Text refers to a group of
  manuscripts and other sources all of which are
  close to each other. Many of the elements of
  these manuscripts and even their final form were
  determined in the early Middle Ages, but they
  continue a much earlier tradition.
• Tov, Textual Criticism of the Hebrew Bible, 16

8
1. Proto-Masoretic Masoretic Texts

• The name Masoretic Text was given to this group
  because of the apparatus of the Masorah attached
  to it. This apparatus, which was added to the
  consonantal base, developed from earlier
  traditions in the seventh to the eleventh
  centuries the main developments occurring in
  the beginning of the tenth century with the
  activity of the Ben Asher family in Tiberias.
• Tov, Textual Criticism of the Hebrew Bible, 16

9
1. Proto-Masoretic Masoretic Texts

• The Masoretic Text (MT) Contains
• The consonantal text found in the proto-Masoretic
  texts of the Second Temple era and the Masorah
  which developed later
• The vocalization developed by the Masoretes
• Para-textual elements
• Accentuation
• The apparatus of the Masorah

10
Some Helpful Books

• Ginsburg, C. D. Introduction to the
  Massoretico-Critical Edition of the Hebrew Bible.
  London Trinity Bible Society, 1897.
  http//ericlevy.com/Revel/Revel.htm
• Kelly, Page H., Daniel S. Mynatt and Timothy
  Crawford. The Masorah of the Biblica Hebraica
  Stuttgartensia. Grand Rapids Wm. B. Eerdmans,
  1998.

11
Some Helpful Books

• Tov, Emanuel. Textual Criticism of the Hebrew
  Bible. Minneapolis Fortress Press,
• Yeivin, Israel. Introduction to the Tiberian
  Masorah. n.l. Scholars Press, 1980.

12
1.1 The History of the MT

• The MT probably developed via the Pharisees, with
  possible Temple ties.
• 1. The period of internal differences in the
  textual transmission.
• This period comes to an end at the time of
  destruction of the Second Temple.

13
1.1 The History of the MT

• The Qumran material contains not only
  proto-Masoretic texts, but also pre-Samaritan,
  Hebrew source for the LXX, Qumran original, and a
  "non-aligned"

14
1.1 The History of the MT

• The differences in the proto-Masoretic group and
  the later MT tended to be limited to single words
  and phrases, although this understanding may
  change.
• The Talmudic and later rabbinic literature have
  preserved other early variants. Tov

15
1.1 The History of the MT

• 2. The Period of relatively high degree of
  textual consistency.
• From the destruction of the Second Temple until
  the 8th century CE.
• Documents from the Judean Desert
  (????????????????? and ????????????? ) written
  before the Bar-Kochba rebellion (132-135 CE)
• Cairo Genizah material.

16
1.1 The History of the MT

• 3. The Period of almost complete textual unity.
• From the 8th century until the end of the Middle
  Ages.
• "The earliest dated Masoretic mss proper are from
  the 9th century, and are characterized by the
  introduction of vocalization, cantillation signs,
  and the Masorah. The consonantal texts of the
  individual codices are virtually identical." Tov

17
1.1 The History of the MT

• N.B. Moshe Goshen-Gottstein's discussion of the
  Ben Asher witness
• Second Rabbinic Bible eclectic text (BH1-2)
• codex Leningrad B 19a (AD 1009) (BH3-BHS)
• But, the Aleppo Codex is considered the best
  (Hebrew University Library Project)

18
1.2 Masorah

• Some Editions of the Masorah
• C. D. Ginsburg, The Massorah Compiled from
  Manuscripts, Alphabetically and Lexically
  Arranged, vols. I-IV (London/Vienna, 1880-1905
  repr. Jerusalem 1971)
• G. E. Weil, Massorah Gedolah manuscrit B.19a de
  Leningrad, vol. I (Rome, 1971).
• D. S. Loewinger, Massorah Magna of the Aleppo
  Codex (Jerusalem, 1977).

19
1.3 MT Manuscripts

• Qumran, Murabba'at, Masada
• Nash Papyrus (Exod 20.2-17, partly Deut 5.6-21)
• Geniza fragments
• Ben Asher Manuscripts
• Codex Cairensis (Former Latter Prophets, 895
  CE)
• Aleppo Codex (Shelomo ben Buya'a wrote the
  consonants, while Aaron Ben Asher vocalized and
  accentuated the codex, 925 CE) lost Gen
  1.1-Deut 28.26 SoS 3.12-the end, i.e., Qoheleth,
  Lamentation, Esther, Daniel, and Ezra.

20
1.3 MT Manuscripts

• Ben Asher Manuscripts
• A Tenth-century codex from the Karaite synagogue
  in Cairo containing the Pentateuch.
• Codex Leningrad B 19A (from 1009)
• Codex B.M. Or. 4445, indicated as B (significant
  sections of the Torah from the first half of the
  tenth century)
• Codex Sassoon 507 of the Torah (tenth century)
• Codex Sassoon 1053 of the Bible (tenth century)

21
The First Edition of the Psalter, 1477 Bologna,
with David Kimhi
22
Complutensian Polyglot (1514-17)
23
Codex Cairensis 827CE, Moshe ben Asher
24
Aleppo Codex Shelomo ben Buya?a, 930CE
25
Aleppo Codex Shelomo ben Buya?a, 930CE
26
Codex 17, Firkowitsch Collection 930CE
27
Codex Leningrad B19A 1008-9CE
28
Codex Leningrad B19A 1008-9CE
29
Benjamin Kennicott Vetus Testamentum Hebraicum
cum variis lectionibus, 2 vol. (Oxford, 1776-1780)
30
Kennicott
31
Benjamin Kennicott Vetus Testamentum Hebraicum
cum variis lectionibus, 2 vol. (Oxford, 1776-1780)
32
Benjamin Kennicott Vetus Testamentum Hebraicum
cum variis lectionibus, 2 vol. (Oxford, 1776-1780)
33
2. Pre-Samaritan Samaritan Pentateuch

• "The Samaritan Pentateuch contains the text of
  the Torah, written in a special version of the
  "early" Hebrew script as preserved for centuries
  by the Samaritan community. Tov

34
2. Pre-Samaritan Samaritan Pentateuch

• This text is permeated with ideological elements
  which, however, form only a thin layer added to
  the text. Scholars are divided in their opinion
  on the date of this version, but it was probably
  based on an early, pre-Samaritan, text, similar
  to those found in Qumran." Tov See Esther
  Hanan Eshel

35
2. Pre-Samaritan Samaritan Pentateuch

• 1. Origin Background "The Samaritans
  themselves believe that the origin of their
  community goes back to the time of Eli (11th
  century BC), when the Jews withdrew from
  Shechem to establish a new cult in Shiloh, which
  was later brought to Jerusalem. Tov

36
2. Pre-Samaritan Samaritan Pentateuch

• A different view is reflected in 2 Kgs 1724-34,
  according to which the Samaritans were not
  originally Jews, but pagans brought to Samaria by
  the Assyrians after the fall of Samaria in the
  8th century BC. Tov

37
2. Pre-Samaritan Samaritan Pentateuch

• 2. Character of the Samaritan Pentateuch
• The academic consensus was that the SP differed
  from the MT in 6000 details and of those
  differences the SP agreed with the LXX on 1600
  occasions.
• Kyung-Rae Kim concludes that the SP and LXX agree
  over against the MT in 964 cases . . . 471 of
  these are insignificant, while among the 493
  remaining, 328 are common harmonizations. Kim,
  Diss, 1994

38
2. Pre-Samaritan Samaritan Pentateuch

• 1. Harmonizing Alterations The SP has been
  understood to be a part of a group of
  harmonistic texts, in which passages are added
  from other parts of the Torah in an
  expansionistic fashion. Esther and Hanan Eshel,
  Kim and Tov
• It is interesting to note that conflicting laws
  have not been harmonized.

39
3.2 Pre-Samaritan Samaritan Pentateuch

• ". . . in the MT the Fourth Commandment in Exod
  208 begins with ??????? (remember) and in
  Deut 512 with ???????? (observe), but the Sam.
  Pent. reads ???????? in both verses." Tov

40
3.2 Pre-Samaritan Samaritan Pentateuch

• 2. Linguistic Corrections this is found in both
  the Pre-Samaritan and SP in general.
• 3. Sectarian Changes in the Samaritan Pentateuch
• The Place of worship Mount Gerizim and not
  Jerusalem.
• The addition of a commandment to the Decalogue
  after Exod 20.12 Deut 5.18 which makes Mount
  Gerizim the proper place of worship The first
  commandment is added to the introduction.

41
3.2 Pre-Samaritan Samaritan Pentateuch

• 4. Orthography in the SP
• The use of matres lectionis
• 5. Modern Editions of the SP
• A. F. von Gall, Der hebräische Pentateuch der
  Samaritaner, (Giessen, 1914-18 repr. Berlin,
  1966). http//rosetta.reltech.org/Ebind/docs/TC/
  
• A R. Sadaqa, Jewish and Samaritan Version of
  the Pentateuch - With Particular Stress on the
  Differences between Both Texts, (Tel Aviv,
  1961-65).

42
Some Helpful Recent Reads

• Anderson, Robert T. and Terry Giles. The Keepers
  An introduction to the History and Culture of the
  Samaritans. Peabody, MA Henderickson Publishers,
  1989.
• Hjelm, Ingrid. Jerusalem's Rise to Sovereignty
  Zion and Gerizim in Competition. London T. T.
  Clark, 2004.
• Hjelm, Ingrid. The Samaritans and Early Judaism
  A Literary Analysis. Sheffield JSOT Academic
  Press, 2000.
• Hjelm, Ingrid. What do Samaritans and Jews have
  in Common? Recent Trends in Samaritan Studies.
  Currents in Biblical Research 3, no. 1 (2004)
  9-59.

43
Samaritan Pentateuch 1215/6 - Num 34.26-35.8
44
A. F. von Gall, Der hebräische Pentateuch der
Samaritaner, (Giessen, 1914-18 repr. Berlin,
1966)
45
3. Septuagint

• "LXX is a Jewish translation which was made
  mainly in Alexandria. Its Hebrew source differed
  greatly from the other textual witnesses (MT, T,
  S, V and many of the Qumran texts), and this
  accounts for its great significance in biblical
  studies. Moreover, LXX is important as a source
  for early exegesis, and this translation also
  forms the basis for many elements in the NT."
  Tov

46
3. Septuagint

• Date Utilizing Septuagintal manuscripts and
  citational evidence, Eugene Ulrich has argued
  that the Greek translation of the Torah was made
  by the late third century B.C.E. Nina Collins,
  focusing primarily on text critical and
  comparative analysis of the Letter of Aristeas,
  concludes that it was translated in 281 B.C.E.

47
3. Septuagint

• Witnesses
• 1. Early texts written on papyrus and leather
  including both scrolls and codices.
• 2nd Century BCE onward, many fragments in
  Palestine Egypt.
• Chester Beatty / Scheide Collection (Egypt, 1931)
  contained most of the books, even Daniel.
• Also Qumran 4QLXXLeva

48
Online Sources on Manuscripts

• Kaft, Robert A. Some Observations on Early Papyri
  and MSS for LXX/OG Study http//ccat.sas.upenn.ed
  u/rs/rak/earlypaplist.html
• Kraft, Robert A. The Textual Mechanic' of Early
  Jewish LXX/OG Papyri and Fragments
  http//ccat.sas.upenn.edu/rs/rak/earlypap.html
• Kraft, Robert A. Treatment of the Greek Variants
  http//ccat.sas.upenn.edu/gopher/text/religion/bib
  lical/lxxvar/new/ruth.txt
• Muccigrosso, John D. Papyrology Home Page
  http//www.users.drew.edu/jmuccigr/papyrology/
• Kalvesmaki, Joel. The Septuagint Online
  http//students.cua.edu/16kalvesmaki/lxx/index.htm

49
3. Septuagint

• 2. Uncial (uncialis) or majuscule (majusculus)
  manuscripts from the fourth century onwards,
  written with "capital" letters.
• B Vaticanus, dates from the 4th century and is
  considered the best complete manuscript of the
  LXX. Relatively free of corruption and influences
  of the revisions of LXX.

50
3. Septuagint

• S or a Sinaiticus, dates from the 4th century
  and usually agrees with B, when the two reflect
  the Old Greek translation, but S is influenced by
  the later revisions of the LXX.
• See http//rosetta.reltech.org/Ebind/docs/TC/

51
3. Septuagint

• Witnesses
• is influenced by the later revisions of the LXX.
• A Alexandrinus dates from the 5th century and
  is greatly influenced by the Hexaplaric tradtion
  and in several books represents it faithfully.

52
Codex Vaticanus LXX, - B Cod. Vat. Gr. 1209
53
3. Septuagint

• Witnesses
• 3. Minuscule (minusculus) or cursive
  manuscripts, written with small letters, from
  medieval times.
• Many minuscule manuscripts from the ninth to the
  sixteenth centuries are known. N.B. Göttingen and
  Cambridge editions.

54
3.3 Septuagint

• Critical Editions
• 1. A. E. Brooke, N. McLean and H. St. J.
  Thackeray, The Old Testament in Greek according
  to the Text of Codex Vaticannus (Cambridge,
  1906-1940) known as "The Cambridge Septuagint".
• Gen-Neh, Esther, Judith, Tobit according to B,
  and where that manuscript is lacking, it has been
  supplemented by A or S.
• http//rosetta.reltech.org/Ebind/docs/TC/

55
"The Cambridge Septuagint"
56
3. Septuagint

• Critical Editions
• 2. Ziegler, ed., Göttingen Septuaginta, Vetus
  Testamentum Graecum auctoritate Societatis
  Litterarum Göttingensis editum.
• This is the most precise and thorough critical
  edition of the LXX.

57
Göttingen Septuaginta
58
3. Septuagint

• Importance of LXX for Biblical Studies
• Gen genealogies, chronological data
• Exod the second account of the building of the
  Tabernacle in chapters 35-40
• Num sequence differences, pluses and minuses of
  verses

59
3. Septuagint

• Josh significant transpositions, pluses, and
  minuses
• Sam-Kgs many major and minor differences,
  including pluses, minuses, and transpositions,
  involving different chronological and editorial
  structures

60
3. Septuagint

• Jer differences in sequence, much shorter text
• Eze slightly shorter text
• Pro differences in sequence, different text
• Dan Est completely different text, including
  the addition of large sections, treated as
  "apocryphal."
• Chr "synoptic" variants, that is, readings in
  the Greek translation of Chronicles agreeing with
  MT in the parallel texts.

61
3. Revisions of the Septuagint

• General
• LXX and the revisions share a common textual
  basis.
• The revision corrects the LXX in a certain
  direction.

62
3. Revisions of the Septuagint

• Kaige-Theodotion
• The Greek scroll of the Minor Prophets found in
  Nahal Hever was identified as an early kaige
  revision of the LXX by Barthelemy (1952).
• Also in 6th column of the Hexapla and in the
  Quinta (fifth) column of the Hexapla . . .
• Supplanted the current Greek version of the Book
  of Daniel . . . ." Jellicoe, The Septuagint and
  Modern Study, 84
• Corrected the LXX with a Hebrew text.

63
3.3.1 Revisions of the Septuagint

• Aquila
• Aquila prepared his revision in approximately 125
  CE. Some biblical books have two different
  editions.
• Student of R. Akiba
• "Aquila . . . Made an attempt to represent
  accurately every word, particle, and even
  morpheme. For example, he translated the nota
  accusativi ta separately with su,n, "with,"
  apparently on the basis of the other meaning of
  ta, namely "with"." Tov
• The Aquila Onqelos theory.

64
3. Revisions of the Septuagint

• Symmacus
• 2nd or 3rd century CE either an Samaritan who
  had become a proselyte or and Jewish-Christian
  Ebionite.
• "Two diametrically opposed tendencies are visible
  in Symmachus's revision. On the one hand he was
  very precise, while on the other hand, he very
  often translated ad sensum rather representing
  the Hebrew words with stereotyped renderings."
  Tov

65
3. Revisions of the Septuagint

• Hexapla
• Origen in the mid-3rd century CE.
• Six columns
• Obelos (?) elements in Greek, but not in Hebrew
• Asteriskos (?) extant in Hebrew, but not in
  Greek, which were added in the fifth column from
  one of the other columns.

66
3. Revisions of the Septuagint

• Post-Hexaplaric Revisions
• Lucian (d. 312 CE). (b, o, c2, e2 in the
  Cambridge Septuagint).
• Known from both Greek and Latin sources, now in
  Hebrew (4QSama).

67
Helpful Literature

• Dines, Jennifer M. The Septuagint. London T T
  Clark, 2004.
• Hengel, Martin. Tthe Septuagint as Christian
  Scripture Its Prehistory and the Problem of Its
  Canon. Grand Rapids Baker Academic, 2004.
• Jellicoe, Sidney. The Septuagint and Modern
  Study. Winona Lake Eisenbrauns, 1993.

68
Helpful Literature

• Marcos, Natalio Fernandez. The Septuagint in
  Context Introduction to the Greek Versions of
  the Bible. Boston/Leiden E. J. Brill, 2001.
• Jobes, Karen H. and Moises Silva. Invitation to
  the Septuagint. Grand Rapids Backer Academic,
  2000.
• Tov, Emanuel. The Text-Critical Use of the
  Septuagint in Biblical Research. 2nd Edition.
  Jerusalem Simor Ltd., 1997.

69
4. Peshitta

• Peshitta means "the simple translation or
  plain"
• "Peshitta is of Christian or Jewish-Christian
  origin.

70
4. Peshitta

• "The quality of the Peshitta (Syriac translation)
  varies from book to book, ranging from fairly
  accurate to paraphrastic. The Heb Vorlage of the
  Peshitta was more or less identical with MT. The
  Peshitta offers fewer variants than the LXX, but
  more than the Targums and the Vulgate." Tov

71
4. Peshitta

• The Hebrew Vorlage for the Peshitta has been seen
  as close to an early MT, most likely after the
  LXX had split off from the development of MT. Yet
  at times the Peshitta's Vorlage stands with the
  LXX trajectory when the MT has a corrupted
  reading. Some scholars argue for an early
  Rabbinic oral vocalization of the text, playing
  into the translation and at times Targum-like
  interpretations.

72
Helpful Sources

• Dirksen, P. B. The Old Testament Peshitta. In
  Mikra, 255-98.
• Lamsa, George M. Holy Bible From the Ancient
  Eastern Text. New York HarperSanFrancisco, 1968.
• Weitzman, M. P. The Syriac Version of the Old
  Testament An Introduction. Cambridge Cambridge
  University Press, 1999.

73
Helpful Sources

• Comprehensive Aramaic Lexicon http//cal1.cn.huc.
  edu/
• Hugoye Journal of Syriac Studies
  http//syrcom.cua.edu/Hugoye/
• Beth Mardutho The Syriac Institute
  http//www.bethmardutho.org/

74
5. Targumim

• Targum means explanation, commentary or
  translation.
• Both Jewish and Samaritan Targumim exist. However
  the Jewish Targumim had a higher status within
  their own community.

75
5. Targumim

• Jewish Targumim exist for all the books of the
  Hebrew Bible except Ezra, Nehemiah and Daniel.
• The Targumim reflect a Hebrew text that is very
  close to the MT, except for the Job Targum from
  Qumran.

76
3.5 Targumim

• Targum Onqelos (Torah)
• Translated by Onqelos the proselyte, "under the
  guidance of R. Eliezer and R. Joshua"
• Date first, third or fifth century CE?
• As a rule Onqelos follows the plain sense of
  Scripture, but in the poetical sections it
  contains many exegetical elements.
• Sperber argues that there are 650 minor variants
  in the Targum Onqelos.

77
3.5 Targumim

• Palestinian Targumim (Torah)
• Jerusalem Targum I Targum Pseudo-Johnathan.
• Jerusalem Targum II, III The Fragment(ary)
  Targum(im)
• Targumim from the Cairo Genizah
• Vatican Neophyti 1 discovered in 1956 in a
  manuscript dating 1504 1st/2nd century CE but
  others 4th/5th century CE.

78
3.5 Targumim

• Targum to the Prophets
• Targum Jonathan to the Prophets varies from book
  to book.
• Targum to the Hagiographa

79
5. Targumim

• "The quality of the translation of the Aramaic
  Targums varies from Targum to Targum and from
  book to book. As a rule, the Targums from
  Palestine are more paraphrastic in character than
  the Babylonian ones. The more literal
  translations of 11QtgJob and 4QtgLev, though
  found in Palestine, are an exception to this
  rule." Tov

80
3.5 Targumim

• "The Targums usually reflect the MT deviations
  from it are based mainly on exegetical
  traditions, not on deviating texts. An exception
  must be made for 11QtgJob, which contains
  interesting variants and which possibly lacks
  some verses of the MT (4212-17), a fact which
  would be significant for the literary criticism
  of the book. It may perhaps be assumed that
  other Targums in an earlier stage of their
  development also contained more variants than in
  their present form. Targum Onqelos as a rule
  contains more variants than the Palestinian
  Targums." Tov

81
Suggested Reading

• Alexander, P. S. Jewish Aramaic Translations of
  Hebrew Scriptures. In Mikra, ed. M. J. Mulder,
  217-54. Minneapolis Fortress Press, 1990.
• Beattie, D. R. G. M. J. McNamara. The Aramaic
  Bible Targums in their Historical Context.
  Sheffeild Sheffield Academic Press, 1994.
• Flesher, Paul V. M. ed. Targum Studies Volume 1
  Textual and Contextual Studies in the
  Pentateuchal Targums. Atlanta Scholars Press,
  1992.
• Levin, Etan. The Aramaic Version of the Bible.
  Berlin W. de Gruyter, 1988.

82
Online Sources

• Comprehensive Aramaic Lexicon http//cal1.cn.huc.
  edu/
• Newsletter for Tagumic Cognate Studies
  http//www.tulane.edu/ntcs/
• The Journal Aramaic Studies

83
6. Vulgate

• Old Latin Tradition The lack of a completed
  critical edition of the Old Latin tradition,
  differing translation consistencies from book to
  book and the debate over whether there was a
  single original translation or multiple separate
  translations are just a few of the problems that
  plague the work on this witness.

84
6. Vulgate

• The Old Latin holds the potential for uncovering
  an early Greek tradition that attests to a better
  reading than the MT in places, comparative
  material for analyzing the Targumic and Christian
  versus Jewish interpretations in the LXX, and an
  exposition of the beliefs of early Christians
  during the period of its writing and transmission.

85
6. Vulgate

• Although Jerome utilized a rabbinic Hebrew Bible
  for his Vulgate translation, he continued to
  rely on different Setuagintal witnesses in both
  his translation and commentaries.