GROSS MOVEMENT OF THE YOUNG CHILD

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• GROSS MOVEMENT OF THE YOUNG CHILD
• Jacqueline D. Goodway
• Crystal F.
  Branta
• Peng Zhang

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• Motor development is a complex process that
  occurs over the lifespan.

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• Rudimentary movements Postural reflexes and the
  rudimentary movements
• Constraints Newell (1984)
• Task
• Environment
• Individual (both functional and structural)

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• Fundamental motor skills (FMS)
• Locomotors skills such as running,
• Manipulative (also called object control) skills
  such as throwing,
• Non-locomotor skills such as bending.

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8.1 MODELS OF MOTOR DEVELOPMENT

• Seefeldt (1980) proposed one of the
  earliest models shaped like a pyramid, and called
  the Sequential Progression in the Achievement of
  Motor Proficiency
• In his model, reflexes serve as the basis for all
  future movements while the FMS are a broad level
  of development built upon the reflex base.

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• Hour Glass (Gallahue and Ozmun (2006) )
• The falling sands into the hour glass represent
  the development of motor skills as they are
  influenced by both heredity and environment. As
  the sands landed in the bottom of the hour glass,
  they build the phases and stages of motor
  development across the lifespan.

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• The Motor Development Mountain (Clark and
  Metcalfe (2002) )
• Clark and Metcalfe proposed that progression up
  the mountain was specific to individuals and the
  constraints they experienced along the route.
  Therefore, individuals could go up different
  peaks of the mountain range depending upon their
  constraints.

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• Age is not a primary factor in their model as
  progression is determined by these individual
  experiences and not by how long an individual
  remains on the mountain.

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8.2UNDERSTANDING SKILL PATTERN DEVELOPMENT

• Two essential ways to understand the
  development of specific skill patterns in young
  children.
• Through identification of sequences of
  development
• Through the dynamical systems paradigm.
• we contend that much can be gained by
  combining the two approaches.

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• Sequences of Development
• The Total Body Approach
• whereby characteristics across body segments
  are identified as emerging in the majority of
  children fairly simultaneously
• The Component Approach
• specific characteristics are identified for a
  segment of the body such as arms, trunk or legs.

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8.3 Dynamical systems paradigm

• A framework of motor development that is
  non-linear is the dynamical systems paradigm.
• That means that pattern shifts are not
  thought of in linear terms such as immature to
  mature

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• Shifts result in individuals performing in a
  variety of states commonly called attractors.
  Attractors are common forms of movement seen in
  specific situations and are typically comfortable
  ways of moving to which individuals gravitate as
  they practice moving.

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8.4 MANIPULATIVE SKILLS PART I

• Manipulative skills are a sub-set of
  skills that involve manipulating or controlling
  objects such as bats and balls. There are many
  manipulative skills including throwing, catching,
  kicking, punting, striking, rolling, and
  bouncing/dribbling.

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• ---Throwing
• Throwing is one of the most functionally useful
  fundamental motor skills as it is inherent in
  sports like baseball and softball and involved in
  sports such as basketball, soccer and cricket.

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• Development of the Overarm Throw
• Throwing is a complex gross motor skill
  that involves the interaction of different body
  parts coordinating with each other to apply
  sophisticated biomechanical principles in action
  resulting in the transfer of significant force to
  the ball.

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Total Body Developmental Sequence of Overarm
Throwing
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??? ???
Line Tracings of the Total Body Five Stages of
Throwing
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Body Component Developmental Sequences for
Throwing
STEP ACTION COMPONENT S-1 No Step S-2
Homolateral Step S-3 Contralateral, Short Step
S-4 Contralateral, Long Step
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• BACKSWING ACTION COMPONENT
• B-1 No Backswing
• B-2 Elbow and Humeral Flexion
• B-3 Circular Upward Backswing
• B-4 Circular, Downward Backswing

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• TRUNK (PELVIS-SPINE) ACTION COMPONENT
• T-1 No Trunk Action or Forward-Backward Movements
• T-2. Upper Trunk Rotation or Total Block
  Rotation
• T-3 Differentiated Rotation

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• HUMERUS (UPPER ARM) ACTION COMPONENT DURING
  FORWARD SWING
• H-1 Humerus Oblique
• H-2 Humerus Aligned But Independent
• H-3 Humerus Lags

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• FOREARM ACTION COMPONENT DURING FORWARD SWING
• F-1 No Forearm Lag
• F-2 Forearm Lag
• F-3 Delayed Forearm Lag

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• Product Measures of Throwing
• Distance thrown, accuracy of the ball thrown, and
  velocity or speed of the ball are common product
  measures used to evaluate overarm throwing
  proficiency.

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• Two major outcomes are known about these product
  measures of throwing
• There are distinct gender differences in outcome
  measures of throwing
• There are age-related increases in outcome
  measures of throwing

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• Constraints in Throwing
• Motor performance is a product of the interaction
  between and among individual, task, and
  environmental constraints.

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• Each of these factors below causes throwing
  performance to vary in relation to the
  constraints operating on the system.

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• Stability and Variability in Throwing Performance
• Often, variability in throwing
  performance initially results in poor
  performance, but as patterns stabilize, new more
  proficient patterns of throwing emerge.

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• Learner Constraints
• -----Biological Factors
• -----Gender and Age

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• Task Constraints
• Task constraints are factors related to the
  goal of the activity.
• In throwing, the commonly investigated areas
  have dealt with throwing for accuracy versus
  force.

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• From a constraints perspective, the task or
  goal of the activity has a powerful influence on
  the pattern we demonstrate throwing.
• Throwing for distance/force versus throwing
  for accuracy only seems to influence the throwing
  patterns of more advanced performers.

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• Environmental Constraints
• Environmental constraints deal with those factors
  external to the individual. Environmental
  constraints include the manipulation of the
  throwing environment such as the distance to be
  thrown and the size of the target. It also
  includes the size of the ball and socio-cultural
  influences such as opportunities to practice
  throwing, and differential effects of
  instruction.

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• Socio-Cultural Factors
• Ball Mass
• Distance Thrown and Size of Target

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• The Influence of Instruction on Throwing
  Performance
• A significant environmental constraint is the
  influence of instruction on throwing performance.
  
• Highlights the need to develop teaching
  strategies for the overarm throw can help both
  boys and girls to improve their throwing
  performance.

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• Catching
• Catching is a commonly used skill in sports,
  games and lifetime activities. It is a
  manipulative skill where the goal of the activity
  is to retain possession of the object.

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• Proficient Catchers

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• Inexperienced Catchers
• Often he/she turns the head to the side, closes
  the eyes, and leans away from the incoming ball
  for fear of being hit in the face.
• She/he does not track the balls flight and just
  responds at the last moment as the ball comes
  toward the body.
• The arms are often presented in front and the
  body and the arms and hands make little or no
  adjustments to the spatial characteristics of the
  ball.

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• Development of Two-Handed Catching

Total Body Developmental Sequence of Two-Handed
Catching
??? ???
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Component Developmental Sequence of Two-Handed
Catching

• Arm Action Component
• Step 1 - Little Response.
• Step 2 - Hugging.
• Sep 3 - Scooping.
• Step 4 - Arms Give.

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• Hand Action Component
• Step 1 - Palms Up.
• Step 2 - Palms In.
• Step 3 - Palms Adjusted.

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• Body Action Component
• Step 1 - No Adjustment. path.
• Step 2 Awkward Adjustment.
• Step 3 - Proper Adjustment.

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• Constraints in Catching

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• Kicking
• Kicking is a ballistic skill that is a form of
  striking with the foot.
• Regardless of the type of kicking, children need
  to possess eye-foot coordination, balance, and
  perceptual motor abilities.

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• Proficient Kickers

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• Inexperienced Kickers
• Unlike skilled kickers that have preparatory,
  force production, and follow-through actions
  inexperienced kickers tend to show a single
  motion that lacks the power producing aspects of
  the proficient kick.
• Less skilled kickers tend to stand behind the
  ball, pick their manipulative foot slightly off
  the ground, and push the ball forward with no
  observable rear leg swing.

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• There is little, if any, motion of the upper body
  and the arms tend to hang by their sides.
• When the foot makes contact with the ball the
  manipulative leg is often flexed, and once it has
  kicked the ball it often retracts.

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• Development of Kicking

four stage sequence for the place kick using the
total body approach.
??? ???
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• PUNTING
• Proficient Punters

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Inexperienced Punters

• The performance of an inexperienced punter is
  very similar to that of a poorly skilled kicker.
• Unlike proficient punters that have preparatory,
  force production, and follow-through actions,
• Inexperienced punters often toss the ball up and
  demonstrate a motion that lacks the power
  producing dynamics of proficient punters.

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• Less skilled punters will start from a stationary
  position. Rather than dropping the ball to their
  foot, as their manipulative leg is raised to punt
  the ball, their arms raise in tandem with the
  leg, and they toss the ball up into the air in a
  pattern coined yoking (Seefeldt
  Haubenstricker, 1975).
• The timing of the toss is characteristically out
  of synch with the timing of the leg swing.

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• There is no rear leg swing, and the manipulation
  leg is pushed in front of the stability leg
  with the ankle at a right angle.

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• Due to the lack of forces generated, the poorly
  skilled punter does not require follow through
  movements, with little trunk action and the arms
  falling to the side once the ball leaves the
  hands.

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Total Body Developmental Sequence of Punting
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Component Developmental Sequence of Punting

• Ball-Release Phase Arm Component
• Step 1- Upward toss.
• Step 2 - Late drop from chest height.
• Step 3 - Late drop from waist height.
• Step 4 - Early drop from chest.

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• Ball-Contact Phase Arm Component
• Step 1 - Arms drop.
• Step 2 - Arms adduct.
• Step 3 - Arm opposition.

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• Ball-Contact Phase Leg Action Component
• Step 1 - No step or short step ankle flexed. No
  step or one short step is taken.
• Step 2 - Long step ankle extension.
• Step 3 - Leap and hop.

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• STRIKING
• Striking is a ballistic, propulsion skill that
  takes on many forms in many sports and is taught
  across the school-aged physical education
  curriculum. There are several forms of striking
  such as sidearm, underarm and overarm, one-handed
  and two-handed.

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• Proficient Strikers

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• Inexperienced Strikers
• The unskilled performance of inexperienced
  strikers is very similar to the chopping motion
  of poorly skilled throwers.
• Low skilled strikers often face the object they
  are trying to strike, have an overarm pattern of
  chopping, and swing the implement from high to
  low with flexion and extension of the arm.

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• There is little or no backswing and often no
  step if there is a step it is with the
  ipsilateral foot.
• There is also no trunk and hip rotation. The
  arms are often rigid along with a rigid wrist
  that is unable to change the angle of the racket
  or bat to the oncoming object.

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Development of Two-Handed Striking (Batting)
Total Body Developmental Sequence of Striking
with a Bat
??? ???
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8.5 LOCOMOTOR SKILLS

• Motor skills that allow individuals to navigate
  through space are referred to as locomotor
  skills.
• Running, galloping, hopping, skipping, and
  jumping are the most common forms of locomotion
  studied.

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• Running
• Running is a form of locomotion that involves
  projecting the body forward on alternating feet
  as the bases of support.
• An extension of walking, running incorporates an
  airborne phase during which both feet are off the
  ground.

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• Proficient Runners

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• Inexperienced Runners
• Less experienced runners keep their bodies in a
  vertical plane when running and utilize their
  arms more for balance than for contributing to
  the forward movement of the run.
• Novice runners will have wide stances and short,
  flat-footed strides

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• They will lift their knees upward, and hold their
  arms in a high guard or middle guard position.
  These arm positions help to stabilize the trunk
  during the run and offer some degree of
  protection if the young runner falls forward.

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Development of Running
Total Body Developmental Sequence in Running
??? ???
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Leg Component L-1 Minimal flight, flat-footed.
Feet toe out and swing leg curves outward. L-2
Flight time increases, often still flat-footed.
Longer stride and recovery knee flexed to at
least 90 degrees. Thigh has lateral swing causing
recovery foot to cross midline of the body in the
rear. L-3 Complete extension at take-off. Foot
contact is heel or ball of the foot. Higher heel
recovery in swing phase and knee lift in forward
swing.
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• Arm Component
• A-1 High guard to middle guard. Do not
  contribute to the running action.
• A-2 Swing bilaterally to counter hip and leg
  swing.
• A-3 Opposition but swing across the body in
  oblique plane. Elbow flexion forward and
  extension backward.
• A-4 Opposition but arms driven in forward or
  backward plane with elbows flexed

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• Jumping
• Jumping is a body projection skill that involves
  a take-off and landing on both feet. As an
  explosive movement, jumping requires strength and
  dynamic balance in order to be executed
  correctly.
• Arms, legs, and trunk must be coordinated at
  take-off, repositioned in flight, and be ready to
  absorb the impact of landing.

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• Proficient Horizontal Jumpers

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• Inexperienced Jumpers
• They often fail to get airborne or, they just
  clear the surface in a small jump up.
• Novice jumpers do not crouch with their knees
  flexed about 90 degrees and rarely extend the
  arms, body, and trunk simultaneously with force.

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• Because their timing, balance, leg strength, and
  coordination are not well established, young
  jumpers often fail to take-off from both feet at
  the same time. They exhibit extraneous arm motion
  that does not contribute to an effective,
  efficient movement and many times lose their
  balance upon landing.

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• Development of Horizontal Jumping

Total Body Developmental Sequence of Jumping
??? ???
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Body Component Developmental Sequence of Jumping

• Leg Component
• L-1 One foot take-off. Little preparatory knee
  flexion.
• L-2 Knee extension begins prior to heel lift
  from surface
• L-3 Simultaneous extension of knees with heel
  lift
• L-4 Heels up first, knees extend next. Jumper
  appears to tip forward

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• Arm Component
• A-1 No action or shoulder girdle retraction.
• A-2 Arms start out to side and swing forward or
  to the side
• A-3 Arms swing forward at take-off but do not
  fully extend overhead
• A-4 Arms extend overhead at point of take-off.

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• Vertical Jumping
• The primary difference in the vertical jump as
  compared to the horizontal jump is in body
  position, angle at take-off, and movement speed.
• In the horizontal position, the hips have to
  extend faster, while in the vertical jump the
  ankles and knees extend faster (Clark, Phillips,
  Peterson, 1989).

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• In the vertical jump, the body must be lifted
  directly upward against gravity and necessitates
  a coordination and timing pattern that is
  slightly different biomechanically from the
  horizontal jump.

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Developmental Sequence for Vertical Jumping
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• Hopping
• Hopping is another body projection skill that
  requires strength, timing, and balance.
• In this skill, children must take-off and land
  on the same foot therefore, hopping is
  considered more difficult than jumping.

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• The skill of hopping is initiated about 6 months
  to one year after the initial jumping pattern is
  begun
• Hopping is also an integral part of childhood
  games and dances.

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• Proficient hoppers demonstrate

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• Inexperienced Hoppers
• Children with little experience in hopping
  maintain a more vertical body position, must rely
  on their arms to assist in the lift, and use the
  non support thigh for balance.

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• Novice hoppers will keep their thighs in the
  frontal plane of the body either in a horizontal
  or diagonal position. This position allows them
  to be able to step onto the non support foot if
  they lose their balance. They also execute small
  hops that are projected almost directly upward,
  covering little horizontal distance. The vertical
  movement allows them to keep the support foot
  directly under their bodies, assisting in
  maintaining balance.

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• Young hoppers often lose their balance easily and
  can only accomplish a few hops at a time without
  stepping onto the non-support foot, with few
  children who are younger than three being able to
  hop at initial levels or hop repeatedly (Bayley,
  1969 McCaskill Wellman, 1938 Haubenstricker,
  Branta, Seefeldt, Brakora, 1989 Seefeldt
  Haubenstricker, 1982).

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• Halverson and Williams (1985) reported that
  hopping on the non-preferred leg lagged
  developmentally behind hopping on the preferred
  side.

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• Development of Hopping
• Total Body Developmental Sequence in Hopping
• Leg Component
• L-1 Momentary flight with swing leg held in
  front or to the side. Body is pulled up rather
  than projected
• L-2 Fall and catch with swing leg inactive.
  Slight lean forward with small knee and ankle
  extension that helps body fall forward
• L-3 Projected take-off. Swing leg assists but
  stays in front of body
• L-4 Swing leg leads, full extension of support
  leg.

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• Arm Component
• A-1 Bilateral inactive. Arms usually held high
  with little action
• A-2 Bilateral reactive. Arms swing up, move to
  winging in reaction to loss of balance
• A-3 Bilateral assist. Arms pump up and down as
  a unit
• A-4 Semi-opposition. Swing leg and slight
  opposition of arm
• A-5 Opposing assist. Arms work in opposition to
  the support and swing legs and assist in the
  force produced.

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• Galloping and Sliding
• The skills of galloping and sliding are
  closely related. They both require a rhythmic
  step accompanied by a leap step to the other foot
  and use asymmetrical, or uneven, gaits.
• Galloping is the first asymmetric locomotor skill
  learned by children and has a forward
  orientation, while sliding uses a sideways
  orientation.

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• Proficient Gallopers

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• Inexperienced Gallopers
• Less experienced gallopers have more difficulty
  on several key aspects of the skill. They are
  unable to use both legs as lead legs, with
  performance on the non-preferred foot lagging
  behind that of the preferred lead leg.

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• Novice gallopers cannot maintain the step
  sequence and, therefore, have poor rhythmical
  flow. They often revert to a run during the
  attempts at performing the gallop.
• Inexperienced gallopers need to concentrate on
  their movement pattern often resulting in
  extraneous force with heavy landing or stepping.

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• Development of Galloping

Total Body Approach Sequence in Galloping
??? ???
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• Skipping
• It is a combination movement sequence that
  requires individuals to execute a step-hop on one
  foot followed by a step-hop on the alternate
  foot.
• Skipping is the most complex of the locomotor
  skills as it requires two skills to be performed
  on the same leg before weight transfer occurs to
  the other lead leg.
• From initiation to maturity it develops in the
  shortest amount of time, from about ages 4 ½ to 6
  ½ years

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• Proficient skippers demonstrate

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• Inexperienced Skippers
• Inefficient skippers appear to be quite segmented
  in their approach to the skip.
• They have to use a lot of concentration in order
  to be able to sequence the step into a hop on the
  same foot and then repeat on the opposite side.

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• Novice skippers also will use exaggerated force
  and, therefore, tire easily as they are learning
  the skill. The arms do not contribute greatly to
  the execution of the skip in the earliest stage
  of the skip.

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• Development of Skipping

Total Body Developmental Sequence in Skipping
??? ???
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Body Component Developmental Sequence of Skipping

• Leg Component
• L-1 Skip on one side only. The other side just
  steps.
• L-2 Alternating step-hop pattern with
  flat-footed landing
• L-3 Alternating step-hop pattern with landing
  on the ball of the foot

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• Arm Component
• A-1 Bilateral assist. Arms pump up and down in
  unison, helping to lift the body on the hop.
• A-2 Semi-opposition. Arms move forward together
  at first, then break into semi-opposition.
• A-3 Opposition. Arms move in opposition to the
  non-support leg.

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8.6 FUNDAMENTAL MOTOR SKILL INTERVENTIONS

• When children receive instruction, there is a
  significant improvement in FMS development
• A critical task for the young child is developing
  competency in FMS that serve as the foundation
  for future sports, games, and lifetime
  activities.

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THANKS