AP Review

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AP Review

• Part II

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• Biomes exist in different regions of the world
  due to
• Temperature and rainfall
• The worlds worst nuclear power plant disaster to
  date occurred at
• Chernobyl, Ukraine
• The earliest pesticides such as DDT are called
• Are called 2nd generation. First generation
  pesticides, include heavy metals such as lead,
  arsenic and mercury and accumulate in soils and
  are resistant to breakdown in the environment

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• Secondary sewage treatment involves
• Removal of 90 plus of organic material and
  little to no pathogens
• The daily measure of a regions temperature and
  precipitation is that regions
• Weather
• County government raise money for the services
  that run a citys infrastructure through ____
  taxes
• Property taxes

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• Examples of sedimentary rock
• Slate, sandstone,limestone
• Examples of metamorphic rock
• Slate, marble, quartz
• Examples of Igneous rock
• Granite, pumice, basalt
• What is an epicenter?
• Point on surface directly above the focus during
  an earthquake

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• What is desertification?
• When productivity of an arid or semiarid land
  decreases by 10 because of human activities.
• What are the values for moderate desertification?
• A decrease between 10-20
• What are the values for severe desertification?
• 25-50

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• In what part of the United States is the soil
  prone to alkalinity?
• West and South West
• How do you treat alkaline soil?
• Add sulfur, which will be converted to sulfuric
  acid by bacteria. This will eventually reduce
  alkalinity.
• Why does clay cause waterlogging?
• Clay has many pores, but they are very small
  thus, there is low permeability because of
  waters adhesion capability.

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• Name three branches of U.S. government
• Judicial, executive, legislative
• What is a steady-state economy?
• Physical wealth and human population are
  maintained at a desired level.
• Themes of the Netherlands Green Plan included
• Integrated life cycle management, invention of
  sustainable technologies, public awareness
  programs
• The government of the Netherlands set goals for
  improvement of
• Toxic chemicals, waste disposal, climate change,
  acid deposition, eutrophication, and ground water
  depletion.

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• The Food Security Act of 1985 is also known as
  the
• Farm Bill Attempted to reverse the declining
  economic environment on the American farm and to
  conserve and restore wetlands, prairies and other
  habitats.
• Nuclear Waste Policy Act (1982)
• Established a schedule to identify a site fore
  and construct an underground repository for spent
  fuel from nuclear power reactors and high level
  radioactive waste from federal defense programs.
  Currently Yucca Mountain is most feasible.

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• Microloans have been successfully tried by
• ACCION International (Massachusetts), The
  Grammeen Bank in Bangladesh, and Community banks
  in Nigeria.
• Dissolved Oxygen?
• Oxygen amounts that are dissolved in water. Most
  important single parameter in aquatic ecosystems.
• Eutrophication?
• The natural aging process of a lake, that is
  greatly accelerated by human actions. Caused by
  additions of nitrogen and phosphorus
• Chlorinated hydrocarbons?
• Also called organochlorides. Synthetic organic
  molecules in which one or more hydrogen atoms
  have been replaced by chlorine. Extremely
  hazardous because they are nonbiodegradable and
  tend to biomagnify. May be carcinogenic.

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• Biomagnification?
• Bioaccumulation of a pollutant occurring through
  several levels of a food chain.
• Brownfields?
• Abandoned, industrial sites that are contaminated
  to the point that new development is curtailed.
• FIFRA?
• Federal, Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodent Act.
  Requires all commercial pesticides to be
  approved by the EPA for general or restricted
  use.
• Denitrification
• Process in the nitrogen cycle where soil bacteria
  or cyanobacteria (blue-green algae) convert
  different forms of nitrogen into the atmospheric
  nitrogen.

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• Paul Hawkin
• Natural capitalism
• Jimmy Carter
• Energy Shortage Resolution. Established a
  national energy policy by decontrolling domestic
  petroleum prices to simulate production and
  expanding the national park system by including
  protection of 103 million acres of Alaskan lands.
• President Nixon
• National Environmental Policy Act Endangered
  Species Act (1973).

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• George Perkins Marsh
• 19th Century American diplomat. Wrote Man and
  Nature. Stated that every human action disturbs
  some aspect of nature, thus producing an unfit
  home for its inhabitants, therefore humans should
  restore the harmonies of nature.
• Ralph Nader
• American consumer advocate. Targeted US
  automakers, condemning their practices and values
  and played a part in the passage of the 1966
  Traffic and Motor Vehicle Act. Helped establish
  the EPA in 1970 and the Freedom of Information
  Act in 974.
• Gifford Pinchot
• Believed that conservation meant the greatest
  good to the greatest number for the longest
  time. Helped establish the US Forest Service,
  the national forest services.

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• Thomas Malthus
• Once the carrying capacity of an area was
  exceeded, organisms would die of starvation
• What are density dependent factors?
• Factors that effect population size as the
  density increases. For example, as the population
  of a group of organisms increases in number, then
  less resources are available, and the population
  declines.
• What is a limiting factor?
• Any deficiency of a resource.

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• What are density independent factors?
• Factors that are unaffected by the density of a
  population. For example, if a catastrophic event
  occurs in an ecosystem, such as a hurricane or
  fire, then organisms will be killed at the same
  rate regardless of their population density.
• What is an El Nino event?
• 1) A weather phenomenon that occurs when there
  is a major shift in atmospheric pressure over the
  central equatorial Pacific Ocean. 2)Unusually
  warm ocean temperatures that cause trade winds to
  relax to the central and western Pacific leading
  to a reversal of tradewinds from a westerly
  direction to an easterly direction. 3)
  Consequences increased rainfall across the
  southern tier of the U.S. and Peru (flooding),
  drought in the west Pacific, brush fires in
  Australia.

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• What is an La Nina event?
• 1) Characterized when unusually cold ocean
  temperatures occur in the Equatorial Pacific. 2)
  warm winters in the S.E. United States, colder
  than normal winters from the Great Lakes to the
  Pacific Northwest, and unsettled winters in the
  Northeast and Middle Atlantic states. 3) May
  occur after some but not all El Nino years.
• Tundra characteristics
• Rainfall- less than 10 in/year
• Climate- long, bitter, cold winters with a 10
  week annual growing season.
• Soils- thin with permafrost, which prevent large
  shrubs or trees from growing
• Geography- north of the coniferous forest in the
  northern hemisphere, and on the tops of tall
  mountains above the timberline.
• Animals- Lemmings, musk ox, lynx, caribou, artic
  hare, artic fox, insects in the summer
• Plants- small shrubs, lichen, mosses, grasses,
  and sedges

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• What is primary succession?
• Also known as bare rock succession because it
  begins with bare rock that starts after volcanic
  activity or receding glaciers. No previous plant
  communities have existed in the ecosystem.
  Steps 1) Mosses/lichen grow in bare rock and
  invades cracks. Weathering breaks down rock into
  soil. 2) Small plants begin to grow in the soil.
  3) Large plants begin to grow until a climax
  community is reached.
• What is secondary succession?
• Also known as old field. Any ecosystem
  disturbed by fire, human activity, or
  abandonment. 1) Land is cleared 2) Annual plants
  grow -1st year 3) Annual and perennials grow
  (years 1-3) 4) Fast growing pines (3-30 years)
  5) Hardwoods invade- 25th year, establish
  themselves between 70 and 100 years. This is a
  climax forest.

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• Aquatic Succession
• Lakes are formed by geological activity and
  sinkholes.
• 1)Oligotrophic lakes (new), usually clear, deep,
  low in nutrients and biodiversity, and high in
  dissolved oxygen.
• 2) Mesotrophic and eutrophic lakes contain more
  aquatic plants and as the plants die they
  decompose and form detritis on the lake bottom.
  Nutrient levels increase, biodiversity increases
  and dissolved oxygen levels begin to decrease.
• 3) Hypereutrophic lakes have excessive levels of
  detritus, are usually shallow and have low levels
  of dissolved oxygen. The types of organisms that
  can live in these lakes are different than
  oligotrophic, mesotrophic or eutrophic due to the
  low oxygen levels.
• 4) Final Stage- lake becomes a marsh and then
  eventually turns into terrestrial habitat or dry
  land.

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• Review nitrogen cycle
• Loam is composed of
• 40 sand, 40 silt, and 20 clay
• Four types of coal mined in order of energy are
• Lignite, subbituminous, bituminous, and
  anthracite
• Subbitimionous is mined mostly in
• Montana, Wyoming
• The largest portion of the worlds coal reserves
  are made up of
• lignite

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• A country currently has a population of 100
  million and an annual growth rate of 3.5 percent.
  If the growth rate remains constant what will be
  the population of this country of this country in
  40 years?
• Approximately 400 million
• The dangers of disposing of toxic chemicals
  underground came to public attention in which of
  the following locations?
• Love Canal, New York

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• Which type of electricity-generating power plant
  releases radioactive materials as well as toxic
  metals such as lead and arsenic under normal
  operating conditions?
• Coal burning
• Which of the following greenhouse gases has the
  greatest heat trapping ability per molecule?
  Carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide,
  chloroflurocarbon, methane, nitrous oxide
• Chlorofluorocarbon
• Which of the greatest permeability? Clay, Loam,
  Sand, Silt, Humus
• Sand
• The presence of which of the following
  contaminants would be the strongest reason for
  judging municipal sewage sludge unfit for use as
  fertilizer.
• Heavy metals

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• The CITIES treaty has been helpful in protecting
  endangered animals and plants by
• Listing those species and products whose
  international trade is controlled.
• The most abundant element in the Earths crust is
• Oxygen
• The approximate efficiency of an average
  coal-fired power plant is___ .
• 30.

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• The approximate efficiency of the conversion of
  light energy to chemical energy in photosynthesis
  is
• 1
• The approximate percentage of electrical energy
  converted to heat in the average incandescent
  light bulb is
• 95
• The maximum efficiency possible in an energy
  conversion process that is not limited by the
  second law of thermodynamics is
• 100

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• The rapid rate of this process in tropical
  forests results in low-nutrient soils.
• Decomposition
• The process in which glucose is synthesized by
  plants
• Photosynthesis
• The process by which a soil nutrient, required
  for DNA and protein structure, is reduced and
  released to the atmosphere as a gas.
• Denitrification

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• The most abundant element in the Earths
  atmosphere
• Nitrogen
• The most abundant element in the Earths core
• Iron
• The element commercially extracted from bauxite
  (bauxite comes from the weathering of basalt).
• Aluminum

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• What type of rock is basalt?
• Igneous
• What is the process where ammonia is converted to
  nitrite, then to nitrate?
• Nitrification- pg. 65/65 Barrons
• Plant roots absorb ammonium ions and nitrate ions
  for use in making molecules such as DNA, amino
  acids, and proteins, this is called
• Assimilation
• Nitrate ions and nitrite ions are converted into
  nitrous oxide gas and nitrogen gas.
• Denitrification
• Most often cited as the causative factor for acid
  deposition
• Sulfur dioxide
• Implicated in human neurological damage
• Lead

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• Considered harmful in the troposphere but
  beneficial in the stratosphere
• Ozone
• Is the major pollutant that electrostatic
  precipitators are designed to remove from
  power-plant smokestack emissions
• Particulates
• Country with the largest area of boreal forests
• Russia
• Country with the highest percentage of land area
  affected by desertification
• Australia
• Country with the largest area of temperate
  deciduous forest
• USA

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• The most commonly used measure of the economic
  growth of a country is
• GNP
• The factor that likely poses the greatest threat
  of extinction of a species worldwide is
• Increasing loss of habitat
• Which energy source is not derived directly or
  indirectly from solar energy?
• Geothermal
• Which treaty or Act best exemplifies global
  collaboration for a sustainable environment?
• The Montreal Protocol

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• At todays rate of consumption, known U.S. oil
  reserves will be depleted in approximately ___
  years.
• 25
• Which country currently ranks number one in both
  coal reserves and use of coal as an energy
  source?
• China- gets approximately 75 of its energy from
  coal. Coal supplies over half of the fuel source
  to generate electricity in the United States.
  Utilities are the largest users of coal in the
  U.S..
• The lowest average generating cost (cents per
  kilowatt-hour) comes from what energy source?
• Large hydroelectric facilities.

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• The fastest growing renewable energy resource
  today is
• Wind
• Out of the following, which form of energy is
  characteristic of having high net useful energy?
  Tar sands, wind energy, fission, synthetic
  natural gas, geothermal energy
• Wind energy
• Only about 10 of the potential energy of
  gasoline is used in powering an automobile. The
  remaining energy is lost into space as
  low-quality heat. This is an example of which
  Law of thermodynamics?
• 2nd- When energy is changed from one form to
  another, some of the useful energy is always
  degraded to lower-quality, more dispersed (higher
  entropy), and less useful form of energy.
• Energy derived from fossil fuels supplies what
  percent of the worlds energy needs?
• 85- (Oil supplies 36, coal supplies 26 and
  natural gas supplies 23)

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• What is the Hubbard Brook experiment?
• The experiment studied how deforestation affects
  nutrient cycles. An undisturbed mature forest
  ecosystem is in dynamic equilibrium with respect
  to chemical nutrients. Nutrients leaving the
  ecosystem are balanced by nutrients entering the
  ecosystem.
• Burning fossil fuels coupled with deforestation
  increases the amount of ___ in the atmosphere
• Carbon dioxide
• In the nitrogen fixation cycle, cyanobacteria in
  soil and water and Rhizobium bacteria in root
  systems of legumes are responsible for converting
• Nitrogen gas and Hydrogen gas to NH(3)
• An industrial method used to manufacture nitrogen
  rich fertilizer is known as
• The Haber process- the industrial production of
  ammonia through the Haber process is the same
  chemical reaction as nitrogen fixation. The
  difference between the bacterial process and the
  factory process are the pressures and
  temperatures required in the manufacturing. The
  production of ammonia through the Haber process
  ranks as one of the most produced chemicals in
  the world
• Plants primarily assimilate sulfur in what form?
• sulfates

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• What is the name of the longest unit of
  geological time? Period, era,epoch,eon
• Eon Types
• 1) Phanerozoic- 570 million years ago. Includes
  Cenozoic, Mesozoic, and Paleozoic
• 2) Proterozoic- 570 million to 2.5 billion years
  ago. Includes the Precambrium period
• 3) Archean- 2.5 billion to 3.8 billion years ago.
  Includes Precambrian period
• 4) Hadean- 3.8 billion to 4.6 billion years ago.
  Earths oldest rocks. No life present, Formation
  of Earth and continents, and chemical evolution.

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• What is an epoch?
• a unit of geologic time that is a division of a
  period and is characterized by rock formation.
  From the most recent to the oldest
• Holocene (10,000 years ago) Development of human
  civilization.
• Pleistocene (10,000-1.6 million years ago).
  Appearance and recession of northern glaciers,
  the appearance and worldwide spread of hominids
  and the extinction of numerous land mammals, such
  as mammoths, mastodons, and saber-toothed tigers.
• Pliocene (1.6 million to 5.3 million years ago).
  Appearance of modern animals, development of
  humans walking upright, formation of Cascade
  Mountains.
• Miocene 5.3 million to 24 million years ago)
• Oligocene (24 million to 37 million years ago)
• Eocene (37 million to 58 million years ago)
• Paleocene (58 million to 65 million years ago).
• The Geological Time Scale EON-ERA-PERIOD-EPOCH

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• The majority of the rocks in the earths crust
  are
• Igneous
• Acid rain also known as acid deposition,
  affects soil by
• Decreasing soil porosity, decreasing pH,
  decreasing soil aeration and lowering nutrient
  capacity.
• The higher the amount of ___ in the soil, the
  better its nutrient holding capacity
• Clay
• A volcano with broad, gentle slopes and built by
  the eruption of runny, fluid-type basalt lava
  would be a. Mt. Saint Helens b. Krakatau c.
  Mauna Loa or Kilauea or d. Vesuvius
• Mauna Loa or Kilauea
• Which of the following is at a convergent
  boundary where two plates carrying continental
  lithosphere are presently colliding?
• A) Appalachian Mountains, B) Himalayan
  Mountains, C) Andes Mountains
• B. Himalayan Mountains

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Atmospheric Dynamics

• The atmosphere is a collection of ___ composed of
  ___ layers.
• Gases, layers
• The layer closest to the Earth is the
• Troposphere
• The 2nd layer is the
• Stratosphere
• This layer contains ___ which absorbs high energy
  radiation
• ozone

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• The major components of an ecosystem structure
  are?
• Abiotic and biotic factors.
• The major drawback that geothermal energy, tidal
  and wave power all have in common is
• Cost effectiveness
• Hydroelectric power cannot be considered as a
  power source to a large portion of the population
  because it
• Is limited in its geographical distribution.
• The Dust Bowl of the 1930s was a result of
• A loss of topsoil in several dry and midwestern
  states, due to a combination of poor cultivation
  and prolonged drought.
• The Clean Air Act of 1970 calls for setting
  ambient standards for which four pollutants?
• Particulates, sulfur dioxide, carbon monoxide,
  and nitrogen oxide

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Aquatic Ecosystems II
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Freshwater Agricultural, Industrial, and
Domestic

• 97 in oceans (not easily usable due to salt)
• 2 in glaciers and ice caps (60 of all
  freshwater- not easily obtained)
• 0.7 in groundwater
• 0.01 in lakes
• 0.005 as soil moisture
• 0.001 as atmospheric moisture
• 0.0001 in rivers and streams
• 0.00005 in living organisms

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Freshwater

• The amount of fresh water is finite
• How would an increase in population affect fresh
  water?
• Primary source of freshwater is precipitation.
  About 10 of water vapor that comes from
  evaporation of oceans ends up as precipitation
  over land.

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Renewal Rate of Water for Different Sources

• Renewal rate (residence rate) refers to the
  average amount of time a water molecule remains
  in that source.

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Renewal Rate of Water
Source of Water Average Renewal Rate
Groundwater (deep) 10,000 years
Groundwater (near surface) 200 years
Lakes 100 years
Glaciers 40 years
Water in soil 70 days
Rivers 16 days
Atmosphere 8 days
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• Aquatic Ecosystems include
• Lakes /ponds- Fresh water bodies of standing
  water that have rooted littoral (shore) and
  floating plant.
• Older eutrophic lakes- numerous species of algae.
• New oligotrophic lakes- few species of algae
• Northern lakes usually experience spring and fall
  overturn, where the top and bottom portions will
  mix with each other.

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Streams and Rivers

• Flowing water with low levels of dissolved solids
  and high dissolved oxygen. Why?
• Contact with the air
• Algae and insect larvae attach themselves to the
  bottom of rocks and aquatic plants are strongly
  rooted.

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Inland Wetlands

• Water levels vary from standing water in the wet
  season to none during the dry season or during
  droughts. Include marshes, swamps and bogs.
• Differentiate between a marsh, swamp and bog