Economic Advance and Social Unrest(1830-1850)

1
Economic Advance and Social Unrest(1830-1850)

• Chapter 22

2
Key Topics

• The development of industrialism and its effects
  on the organization of labor and the family
• The changing role of women in industrial society
• The establishment of police forces and reform of
  prisons
• Early developments in European socialism
• The revolutions of 1848

3
Industrialization of Europe

• Industrial Revolution began in Britain c.1780
• Continental Europe did not really experience
  industrialization till the C19th, but by
  mid-C19th, in many parts of western central
  Europe, the impact of industrialization was being
  felt contributing to significant social
  changes.

4
Impacts ofIndustrialization in Europe

• Migration from rural to urban areas
• Human misery in urban areas (overpopulated, lack
  of services, illnesses etc)
• Spread of railways (improved canal road
  networks) after 1830s/1840s. (Assisted
  migration, industrialization as it required
  more iron steel).
• Proletarianization of labor force (factory
  workers urban artisans enter wage economy
  with no control over means of production or
  goods they produced
• Few rights for workers in factories poor
  conditions for urban artisans

5
Toward an Industrial Society

• Conversion of Europes economy to industrial
  manufacturing during the first half of the 19th
  century reorganized society.
• People migrated to cities to find work in the new
  factories.
• Conditions of life radically changed for them.

6
Britains Industrial Leadership(I)

• The Industrial Revolution, led by textile
  manufacturing, began in Great Britain in the 18th
  century. Why in Britain?
• Because Britain had more productive capacities in
  terms of natural resources, capital, technology,
  food supply, relative social mobility, strong
  foreign and domestic markets.
• French Revolution and Napoleonic Wars distrupted
  economic activity on the Continent and weakened
  France as a competitor for Atlantic trade.
  Britain had US, Canada, South America and
  southern Asia to sell its goods.

7
Britains Industrial Leadership(II)

• Britain acquired wealth through various
  industries textile weaving, ironmaking,
  shipbuilding, china production, etc.
• Britain dominated the world scene in the 19th
  century by investing its wealth in the
  development of global networks.
• Example British textile mills bought cotton
  produced by slaves on the plantations of the
  southern US and turned it into finished cloth
  that was shipped to India where British navy
  protected the sea lanes.
• By the 1830s, Belgium, France and Germany were
  headed down the same path as Britain with a
  growing number of steam engines in use.

8
Population and Migration(I)

• In the 18th century, population explosion
  continued with the increase of industrialization.
• Between 1831-1851,
• France grew from 32 million to 35 million
• Germany 26 million to 33 million
• Britain 16 million to 20 million

9
Population and Migration(II)

• Europeans increasingly lived in cities
• Rural/Urban divide
• England and Wales, half of the population was
  urban in the mid 19th century.
• France and Germany, quarter of the population was
  urban.
• Eastern Europe, remained rural and little
  industrialized.

10

• Life in the cities

• Life in the countryside

• Exhausted physical resources housing, water,
  sewers, food supplies, and lighting not enough
  to deal with migration.
• Diseases, especially cholera, ravaged the
  population.
• Crime became a way of life

• Hardly better than the life in the cities.
• Liberal reformers had hoped that peasents will
  turn into progressive, industrious farmers( as a
  result of French Revolution, emanciaption of
  serfs in Prussia, Austria and Russia)
• However, possesion of land made most of them
  conservative because they had little land to
  support themsleves in a commercialized economy,
  they had no capital to invest to make their lands
  more productive.

11
Railways

• Industrial development in the 1830s and 1840s was
  driven by the construction of Europes railway
  system.
• The construction of railways speeded
  industrialization in several ways
• Trains were the most dramatic application of the
  steam engine, and the construction of railroads
  increased the demand for iron and steel and for
  skilled laborers.
• Increased manufacturing capacity at forges meant
  that more iron and steel became available to
  construct other things such as ships and
  machines.

12
The Labor Force(I)

• Labor force was quite diverse at that moment
  factory workers, urban artisans, cottage industry
  craftspeople, household servants, miners, rural
  peddlers, farm workers and railroad navvies.
• Some workers enjoyed steady employment and
  decent wages but others constituted a class of
  laboring poor.

13
The Labor Force(II)

• In the first half of the 19th century only the
  textile manufacturing industry became mechanized
  and concentrated in factories.
• Skilled artisans who lived in cities or small
  towns were still greater in numbers compared to
  the industrial factory workers.
• Industrialization threatened to make the skills
  of many artisans useless and to deprive them of
  control over their trades.

14
Proletarianization of Factory Workers and Urban
Artisans

• During the 19th century, both of them went under
  the process of proletarianization.
• They lost the ownership of the means of
  production( tools and equipment) and lost control
  of their trades. They simply became wage earners.
  
• It occurred because people with capital
  constructed factories and purchased what was
  needed to run them labor as well as machinery
  and raw materials.

15
Mechanization

• Factory workers, unlike self employed artisans,
  had to submit to a kind of discipline that was
  unpopular and difficult to maintain.
• It was the needs of macnhines which determines
  what was expected of their human operators.
• Laborers should match the pace and consistent
  performance of the cables, wheels, and pistons of
  the mechanisms with which they worked.

16
A Guild System(I)

• In the 18th century, as earlier, a guild system
  had organized production in Europes urban
  workplaces.
• A master( guild member) owned a workshop and the
  larger pieces of equipment trained the
  apprentices who when they became journeymen,
  acquired their own tools.
• Journeymen expected to be admitted to the guild
  as masters and be permitted to set up shops of
  their own.

17
A Guild System(II)

• The advantage of the guild system gave workers
  control over labor recruitment, training, pace of
  production, quality of product, and price.
• Guilds in the 19th century France had outlawed
  the guilds during the French Revolution, and
  elsewhere in Europe, liberals worked to ban labor
  and guild organizations on the theory that they
  limited economic freedom.

18
A Guild System(III)

• Guild masters faced increasing competetion with
  machine production.
• In response, many workshops tried to increase
  efficieny by what was known in France as
  confection, production of standart sizes and
  styles rather than special orders for individual
  customers.
• This practice increased the division of labor,
  because each of a shops artisans produced only a
  part of a more or less uniform final product.
  Thus, less skill was required and the value of
  skilld diminished.

19
Consequences of mechanization in workplaces

• Masters tried to increase production and reduce
  costs by lowering wages paid for piecework.
• This led to work stoppages or strikes.
• But there were many unskilled workers willing to
  work for lower wages or under less protected
  conditions than traditional artisans. This was
  the consequence of migration.
• For a urban journeymen, becoming a master and
  having their own shop was getting more and more
  difficult.
• Thus, many of them spent their lives as wage
  laborers whose skills were simply bought and sold
  in the marketplace.
• This led to a working-class political action.

20
The Chartist MovementDefinition

• The Chartist Movement, or Chartism, was an
  attempt in Britain to build an independent
  political party devoted to the interests of
  working people.
• The movement began in 1837 and inspired a general
  strike in August 1839.
• A mass demonstration in Newport in November 1839
  was met by troops who fired on the crowd and
  killed at least 15.
• The name Chartist came about because the movement
  advocated a charter for reform of the British
  political system.

21
The Chartist Movement (1)

• To begin with workers generally hopeful the
  liberal movement was a means for improving their
  lives, but after mid-C19th they started losing
  faith shifting in some cases towards more
  radical ideas agendas of socialist thinkers who
  argued against the selfish individualism
  advocated by the liberals
• While it was not till much later that workers
  rights were paid greater attention, early attempt
  of workers to organize politically
  independently to demand political changes can be
  seen in Chartist Movement that developed in
  Britain in mid-1830s

22
The Chartist Movement (2)

• May 1838 Chartists published The Peoples
  Charter, essentially a list of key political
  demands incl.
• Every man over 21 to have the right to vote
• A secret ballot to be introduced
• A MP did not have to own property of a certain
  value or above to become a MP
• All MP's to be paid to allow working men to serve
  in Parliament
• All constituencies to be equal in terms of
  population size
• Elections to Parliament to be held every year so
  that MP's would have to answer to their voters if
  they had not performed well.
• Although Chartist Movement eventually dissolved,
  (losing some of its support especially as
  economic conditions made a relative improvement),
  its goals were nonetheless later supported by
  others ultimately all of the above goals were
  accomplished.

23
The Chartist Movement (3)

• The Chartists obtained one and a quarter million
  signatures and presented the Charter to the House
  of Commons in 1839, where it was rejected by a
  vote of 235 to 46.
• Many of the leaders of the movement, having
  threatened to call a general strike, were
  arrested.
• When demonstrators marched on the prison at
  Newport, Monmouthshire, demanding the release of
  their leaders, troops opened fire, killing 24 and
  wounding 40 more.
• A second petition with 3 million signatures was
  rejected in 1842 the rejection of the third
  petition in 1848 brought an end to the movement.
• More important than the movement itself was the
  unrest it symbolized. The Chartists' demands, at
  the time, seemed radical those outside the
  movement saw the unrest and thought of the French
  Revolution and The Reign of Terror.
• The radicalism that surfaced in the agitation for
  the Charter and a desire for a working-class
  voice in foreign affairs eventually channeled
  itself into related areas like the Socialist
  movement.

24
A Video on Chartism

• http//timelines.tv/index.php?t1e13

25
Revolutions of 1830

• Partially successful challenges to conservative
  order occurred in 1830. 1st major successful
  challenge in France where Bourbon monarchy was
  overthrown. Charles X, Louis XVIII brother,
  became king after Louis death (1824).
• Charles was much more extreme conservative
  (supported by ultraroyalists) who wanted to
  turn clock back fully to absolutist years. He
  introduced series of conservative / reactionary
  policies incl. payments to aristocrats who lost
  land in French Revolution. Unhappy that there
  were too many liberals in Chamber of Deputies, he
  called new election in early 1830... But liberals
  gained even more seats! Charles now led royal
  coup d'état issuing Four Ordinances on July
  25th 1830.

Charles X
26
Four Ordinances July Revolution

• These ordinances basically ignored constitutional
  monarchy established at Vienna. Liberal
  newspapers called on people to resist. Labourers
  in Paris, (already hurt by harsh economic
  conditions since 1827), took to the streets
  were attacked by Kings forces in the July Days.
  Many died, but ultimately king was forced to
  abdicate on Aug 2nd 1830. The Chamber of Deputies
  chose Duke of Orleans, thereafter known as Louis
  Philippe, (known to have more liberal leanings),
  as new king.

• 1) Restrictions on Freedom of the Press
• 2) Chamber of Deputies Dissolved
• 3) New Elections Called
• 4) Franchise restricted to only the very
  wealthiest

27
The Independence of Belgium

• Developments in France in 1830 led to political
  changes in other areas. E.g., at Vienna new state
  known as United Kingdom of the Netherlands formed
  incl. territory known later as Belgium. Uprisings
  began late Aug 1830 Dutch forces failed to
  defeat Belgians who declared their independence
  established a liberal constitution. This
  territorial change conflicted with Vienna
  decisions, but Russia busy with own uprising of
  Poles, Prussia trying to suppress liberal
  uprisings in smaller neighbouring German states
  Austria likewise in Italian states. Great Powers
  therefore took no action. Belgian independence
  officially recognized with Treaty of London in
  1839.

28
British Counterpart to Revolution

• Revolutionary uprisings shook much of Europe from
  late C18th onwards, but Britain was an exception.
• While no revolution in Britain during this
  period, there was, however, change. Change was
  more gradual incremental usually result of
  compromise between more conservative liberal
  elements of society.
• E.g., Great Reform Bill of 1832 increased size
  of British electorate by providing wealthier
  business commercial class with right to vote.
  This change was not a result of revolution, but
  of recognition of changes in domestic balance of
  power, compromise a strong parliamentary
  tradition open to adapting in order to meet the
  rising needs / demands for change.

29
1848 Year of Revolutions

• As in 1830, there was in 1848 another wave of
  revolutionary uprisings in Europe, but this time
  even more widespread than before (only Britain
  Russia remaining largely untouched by effects).
  This time nationalism also played a greater role,
  while most of the uprisings did not ultimately
  achieve their goals, they shook the Continent
  like never before. It is for this reason that
  1848 is known as the Year of Revolutions.
• Again, uprisings of 1848 were typically led by
  liberals (though in most cases they held
  nationalist objectives too). To increase their
  strength against conservative forces these
  liberal leaders appealed also to urban working
  classes. Once they came close to achieving their
  goals, however, the tendency of liberals was to
  ignore working class demands for social
  economic change causing the 2 allied groups to
  break-up allowing forces of conservatism
  opportunity to reassert authority.

30
The French Revolution of 1848 (1)

• Again, as in 1830, the first major revolutionary
  uprising of 1848 occurred in Paris, France.
• Since 1830 liberals led by Alphonse de Lamartine,
  who had themselves contributed to the coming to
  power of Louis Philippe had become increasingly
  dissatisfied with his rule the administration
  of Prime Minister Guizot.
• Liberals were unhappy with high levels of
  corruption wanted the franchise further
  broadened opened-up to more members of the
  middle classes.
• Liberals began a political campaign to support
  their demands by holding series of political
  banquets. They called also for working class
  support which was quite readily given with
  workers especially hard-hit by the negative
  economic conditions caused by poor harvests of
  1846 1847.

31
The French Revolution of 1848 (2)

• Feb. 21st 1848 government banned holding of new
  banquets. Next day workers took to the streets of
  Paris to protest their numbers continued to
  increase the following day. On 24th, fearing for
  his life, Louis Philippe abdicated fled to
  England.
• A new provisional government headed by Lamartine,
  but incl. more radical workers representatives
  like Louis Blanc, was formed with objective of
  establishing a new republic holding elections
  based on universal manhood suffrage.

32
The French Revolution of 1848 (3)
33
The French Revolution of 1848 (4)

• Elections held on April 23rd 1848, but, fearing
  that radicals socialists of Paris might
  threaten their newly acquired lands, (they were
  small-scale landholders since Revolution of
  1789), typically conservative, rural peasants
  voted in large numbers for more moderate
  relatively conservative candidates who now
  dominated the new National Assembly.
• National Assembly therefore ended many
  concessions made in the meantime to urban working
  classes, leading to further working-class rioting
  in Paris. Workers were eventually suppressed
  following bloody conflict with troops under
  command of General Cavaignac who was sent by the
  Assembly to deal with the problem. Clashes
  following his arrival in Paris are known as the
  Bloody June Days due to large numbers of
  workers killed or wounded.

34
The Rise of Louis Napoleon (1)

• When presidential elections eventually held for
  new French Republic, Louis Napoleon stood as a
  candidate. His greatest asset was his name! The
  name Napoleon symbolized glory, most impt.
  social stability order... just the qualities
  that French populace, (the peasantry in
  particular), were then seeking. He won elections
  by a massive majority, gaining approximately ¾ of
  the votes.
• Louis Napoleon, however, proved to be no great
  republican or democrat. In 1851 he took on
  dictatorial powers, making himself Emperor one
  year later.

35
The Rise of Louis Napoleon (2)

• While some suspicion as to who his father
  actually was, Louis Napoleon (1808-1873) was
  accepted as being the nephew of Napoleon
  Bonaparte (or Napoleon I). Napoleon Is son died
  an unhealthy young man, in 1832 in Austria. Out
  of respect to him, Louis Napoleon was to take on
  the title of Napoleon III (rather than Napoleon
  II).

36
Rulers of France 1789-1871
37
1848 Revolutionary Uprisings in the Habsburg
Empire (1)

• Throughout much of the Habsburg Empire there were
  revolts revolutionary uprisings in 1848
  (continuing in some cases into 1849).
• In March 1848 Magyar nationalist Louis Kossuth
  called for the greater independence of Hungary.
  Meanwhile students rioted in Vienna. Quickly
  losing control of the situation, the once great
  statesman Metternich resigned fled, soon to be
  followed out of the capital by the emperor.

38
1848 Revolutionary Uprisings in the Habsburg
Empire (2)
Metternich fleeing the uprisings of 1848
39
1848 Revolutionary Uprisings in the Habsburg
Empire (3)

• The Habsburgs, however, were less fearful of any
  urban uprisings than they were of a general
  uprisings of the serfs.
• There had already been a few instances of serfs
  attacking official aristocratic properties in
  an attempt to cut-off the danger to win their
  loyalty, the decision was taken to abolish
  serfdom.
• This was to be one of the most significant gains
  of the turmoil of 1848.

40
1848 Revolutionary Uprisings in the Habsburg
Empire (4)
This map shows complex ethnic composition of
Habsburg Empire... in a simplified form! Actually
more complex! The map just shows the different
regions according to which ethnic group was
numerically dominant, but does not reflect fact
that even where there is a single colour,e.g
Slovakia, there were other ethnic groups too.
41
1848 Revolutionary Uprisings in the Habsburg
Empire (5)

• Magyars revolted demanding virtual independence
  for a Hungarian state covering much of the east
  of the Habsburg Empire, but Romanians Croatians
  Serbs who would thereby come under their
  control were not happy with this. These ethnic
  groups now rose up against Magyars the
  Habsburgs wisely assisted them. Meanwhile the
  Czechs also revolted, demanding an autonomous
  Slavic state of Bohemia Moravia... in Italy
  too, the Austrian dynasty was faced first by war
  (against the neighbouring northern Italian state
  of Piedmont), then by radicals, republicans
  nationalists (most famously Giuseppe Mazzini
  Giuseppe Garibaldi) who declared Rome a republic
  began to fight for a united Italy.

42
1848 Revolutionary Uprisings in the Habsburg
Empire (6)

• With the middle classes worried about radical
  successes, the different ethnic groups of the
  Empire quarrelling amongst themselves, with
  Russian Tsar Nicholas I supporting Habsburg
  forces with 200,000 men, one by one uprisings
  were put down the Habsburgs reasserted their
  control.
• In June 1849, concerned about possibility of a
  more powerful Italy becoming its southern
  neighbour, France sent troops to put down
  uprisings in Rome. French troops remained there,
  supposedly to protect the Pope, until 1870.

43
1848 Revolutionary Uprisings in the Habsburg
Empire (7)
Mazzini
Garibaldi
Italy in 1848
44
1848 The Frankfurt Parliament (1)
45
1848 The Frankfurt Parliament (2)

• Meanwhile, liberals nationalists were restless
  in the various German territories too, including
  in Prussia. Nearly all the gains they made during
  this year, however, were only temporary Once
  order had been restored, the conservative
  administrations, withdrew concessions that they
  had earlier made to quieten protest.
• The biggest disappointment for most German
  supporters of change was the failure of the
  Frankfurt Parliament.

46
1848 The Frankfurt Parliament (3)

• The Frankfurt Parliament met on May 18th 1848.
  Consisted of representatives from all German
  territories, its purpose was to unite Germany
  under a relatively liberal constitution.
• Conservatives radical workers were not ofcourse
  happy with the liberal outlook of most
  representatives, yet even these representatives
  had difficulty agreeing among themselves what
  sort of Germany they wanted.
• Main split between supporters of a smaller
  Germany (not incl. Austrian Empire) the
  kleindeutsch, supporters of a larger Germany
  incl. Austria, Prussia other German Bund
  territories grossdeutsch.

47
1848 The Frankfurt Parliament (4)

• Already having to cope with own internal ethnic
  quarrels, its ethnic groups fearful of German
  domination nationalism threatening its v.
  existence, Austria rejected idea of unification.
  Prussia only alternative to lead a united
  Germany.
• March 27th 1849 Parliament offered crown of
  united Germany to Prussian King Frederick William
  IV. He refused! Why?
• a) because, he argued, kings got their power
  from God should not be limited by a
  constitution such as that which parliament wished
  to impose
• b) because, most probably, he wasnt prepared to
  fight war, (against other German kings princes,
  possibly against the Habsburgs too), who were
  not likely to accept this situation.
• The German liberals efforts had failed miserably,
  they simply did not have the power to achieve
  their ends.