Anatomy 2

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Anatomy 2

• Introduction
• Dr. Michael P. Gillespie

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Chapter 1

• An Introduction to the Human Body

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Definitions

• Anatomy Deals with the structure of body parts
  their forms and relationships.
• Physiology Deals with the functions of body
  parts what they do and how they do it.
• Dissection The careful cutting apart of body
  parts to see their relationships.

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Levels of Body Organization

• Chemical level
• Cellular level
• Tissue level
• Organ level
• System level
• Organism

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Chemical Level

• Atoms smallest units of matter that participate
  in chemical reactions.
• Molecules two or more atoms joined together.

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Elements In Living Things

• 11 main elements comprise living things.
• C, H, O, P, K, I N, S, Ca, Fe, and Mg.
• CHOPKINS CaFé, Mighty Good!

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Cellular Level

• Molecules combine to form cells.
• Cells are the basic structural and functional
  units of an organism.
• Cells are the smallest living units in the human
  body.
• Cells are made up of organelles.

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Tissues

• Tissues are groups of cells and the materials
  surrounding them that work together to perform a
  particular function.
• 4 basic types of tissues in the human body
• Epithelial tissue
• Connective tissue
• Muscle tissue
• Nervous tissue

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Organs

• Organs are composed of two or more tissues that
  work together to perform specific functions.
• They usually have recognizable shapes.

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System Level

• A system consists of related organs that have a
  common function.
• Sometimes an organ is part of more than one
  system.
• There are eleven systems in the human body.

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Organ Systems

• Integumentary System
• Muscular System
• Skeletal System
• Nervous System
• Endocrine System
• Lymphatic and Immune System

• Cardiovascular System
• Respiratory System
• Digestive System
• Urinary System
• Reproductive Systems

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Integumentary System

• Components Skin, hair, nails, sweat glands, oil
  glands.
• Functions Protects the body helps regulate
  body temperature eliminates wastes makes
  vitamin D detects sensations such as touch,
  pain, warmth, and cold.

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Muscular System

• Components Muscles, tendons.
• Functions Produces body movements, such as
  walking stabilizes body position (posture)
  generates heat.

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Skeletal System

• Components Bones, joints, associated
  cartilages.
• Functions Supports and protects the body aids
  body movements houses cells that produce blood
  cells stores minerals and lipids.

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Nervous System

• Components Brain, spinal cord, nerves, special
  sense organs (I.e. eyes and ear).
• Functions Generates action potentials (nerve
  impulses) to regulate body activities detects
  changes in the bodys internal and external
  environments, interprets these changes, and
  responds causing muscular contractions or
  glandular secretions.

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Endocrine System

• Components Hormone producing glands and hormone
  producing cells.
• Functions Regulates body activities by
  releasing hormones (chemical messengers) which
  are transported in the blood from an endocrine
  gland or tissue to a target organ.

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Lymphatic and Immune System

• Components Lymphatic fluid and vessels spleen,
  thymus, lymph nodes, tonsils.
• Functions Returns proteins and fluids to blood
  carries lipids from gastrointestinal tract to
  blood includes structures that generate
  lymphocytes (to protect against disease-causing
  organisms).

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Cardiovascular System

• Components Blood, heart, and blood vessels.
• Functions Heart pumps blood through vessels
  blood carries oxygen and nutrients to cells and
  carbon dioxide and wastes away from cells
  regulates acid-base balance, temperature, and
  water content of body fluids components defend
  against disease.

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Respiratory System

• Components Lungs, air passageways such as the
  pharynx (throat), larynx (voice box), trachea
  (windpipe), and bronchial tubes.
• Functions Transfers oxygen from inhaled air to
  blood and carbon-dioxide from blood to exhaled
  air regulates acid-base balance, air flowing out
  through vocal cords produces sounds.

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Digestive System

• Components Mouth, esophagus, stomach, small and
  large intestines, and anus (organs of GI tract)
  salivary glands, liver, gallbladder, pancreas
  (accessory organs).
• Functions Physical and chemical breakdown of
  food absorbs nutrients, eliminates solid wastes.

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Urinary System

• Components Kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder,
  urethra.
• Functions Produces, stores, and eliminates
  urine eliminates wastes regulates volume and
  chemical composition of blood maintains
  acid-base balance maintains mineral balance
  helps regulate production of red blood cells.

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Reproductive Systems

• Components Gonads (testes in males, ovaries in
  females), associated organs (uterine tubes,
  uterus, and vagina in females and epididymis,
  ductus deferens, and penis in males).
• Functions Gonads produce gametes (sperm or
  oocytes) gonads release hormones.

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Non-invasive techniques to assess body structure
and function

• Inspection the examiner observes the body for
  any changes that deviate from normal.
• Palpation the examiner feels the body with the
  surface of the hands.

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Non-invasive techniques to assess body structure
and function

• Auscultation the examiner listens to the body
  sounds to evaluate functioning of certain organs,
  often using a stethoscope to amplify the sounds.
• Percussion the examiner taps on the body
  surface with fingertips and listens to the
  resulting echo.

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Basic Life Processes

• Metabolism
• Responsiveness
• Movement
• Growth
• Differentiation
• Reproduction

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Metabolism

• The sum of all the chemical processes that occur
  in the body.
• Catabolism The breaking down of complex
  chemical substances into simpler ones.
• Anabolism The building up of complex chemical
  substances from simpler ones.

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Responsiveness

• The bodys ability to detect and respond to
  changes in its internal and external environment.

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Movement

• Motion of the whole body.
• Motion of individual organs.
• Motion of Single cells.
• Motion of structures inside cells.

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Growth

• Growth is an increase in body size that results
  from an increase in the size of existing cells,
  the number of cells, or both.
• A tissue can increase in size due to an increase
  in the amount of material between cells (I.e.
  bone tissue).

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Differentiation

• Differentiation is a process a cell undergoes to
  develop from an unspecialized to a specialized
  state.
• Each type of cell has a specialized structure and
  function.
• Stem cells can divide and give rise to progeny
  that undergo differentiation.

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Reproduction

• The formation of new cells for tissue growth,
  repair or replacement.
• The formation of new cells for the production of
  a new individual organism (through fertilization
  of an ovum by a sperm cell.

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Anatomical Terminology

• Body Positions
• Regional Names
• Directional Terms
• Planes and Sections
• Body Cavities

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Body Positions

• Anatomical Position
• The subject stands erect facing the observer,
  with the head level and the eyes facing forward.
  The feet are flat on the floor and directed
  forward, and the arms are at the sides with the
  palms turned forward.
• Prone body lying face down.
• Supine body lying face up.

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Prone Supine
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Regional Names

• Regions can be identified externally.
• Principal regions
• Head (cephalic)
• Neck (cervical)
• Trunk
• Upper limb
• Lower limb

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Directional Terms

• Superior (cephalic or cranial) and inferior
  (caudal).
• Anterior (ventral) and posterior (dorsal).
• Medial and lateral.
• Intermediate
• Ipsilateral and contralateral.
• Proximal and distal.
• Superficial and deep.

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Planes and Sections

• Sagittal Plane vertical plane divides body
  into right and left.
• Midsaggital or median plane equal parts
• Parasaggital plane unequal parts
• Frontal or coronal divides body into anterior
  and posterior parts
• Transverse plane divides body into superior and
  inferior parts
• Oblique plane angle
• Section one flat surface or a 3-D structure

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Body Cavities

• Spaces within the body that help protect,
  separate, and support internal organs.
• Two major cavities are the dorsal and ventral
  body cavities.

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Dorsal Body Cavity

• Located near the dorsal (posterior) surface of
  the body.
• Subdividions
• Cranial cavity
• Vertebral (spinal) canal
• Meninges

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Ventral Body Cavity

• Located near the ventral (anterior) aspect of the
  body.
• Subdivisions
• Thoracic cavity
• Abdominopelvic cavity
• Diaphragm
• Viscera

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Thoracic Cavity

• Subdivisions
• Pericardial Cavity
• Pleural cavities
• mediastinum

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Abdominopelvic cavity

• Subdivisions
• Abdominal Cavity
• Pelvic Cavity

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Thoracic and Abdominal Cavity Membranes

• Serous membrane
• Pleura
• Pericardium
• Peritoneum

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Abdominopelvic Regions and Quadrants

• The nine-region designation is used for
  anatomical studies, whereas the quadrant
  designation is used to locate the site of pain,
  tumor, or some other abnormality.

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Abdominopelvic Regions

• Right Hypochondriac Region
• Epigastric Region
• Left Hypochondriac Region
• Right Lumbar Region
• Umbilical Region
• Left Lumbar Region
• Right Inguinal (Iliac) Region
• Hypogastric (Pubic Region)
• Left Inguinal (Iliac) Region
• Subcostal line, transtubercular line,
  midclavicular lines

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Abdominopelvic Quadrants

• Right Upper Quadrant (RUQ)
• Left Upper Quadrant (LUQ)
• Right Lower Quadrant (RLQ)
• Left Lower Quadrant (LLQ)
• Horizontal lines passes through umbilicus

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Homeostasis

• The French physiologist Claude Bernard proposed
  that cells live in a relatively constant internal
  environment -le milieu interieur- despite
  changes in the organisms external environment.
• The American physiologist Walter Bradford Cannon
  coined the term homeostasis to describe this
  constancy.

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Homeostasis Continued

• Homeo sameness Stasis standing still.
• The condition of equilibrium in the bodys
  internal environment.
• Various regulatory processes in the body maintain
  this condition.
• Dynamic condition.

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Body Fluids

• An important aspect of homeostasis is maintaining
  the volume and composition of body fluids.
• Intracellular fluid ICF intra inside.
• Extracellular fluid ECF extra outside.
• Various substances are dissolved in the water of
  ICF and ECF.

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Dissolved Substances

• Oxygen
• Nutrients
• Proteins
• Ions

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Interstitial Fluid

• The extracellular fluid that fills the narrow
  spaces between cells of tissues is known as
  interstitial fluid.
• Inter between.
• For cells to function properly, the composition
  of the surrounding fluid must be precisely
  regulated.

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Types of Interstitial Fluid

• Blood plasma ECF within blood vessels
• Lymph ECF within lymphatic vessels
• Cerebrospinal fluid ECF around the brain and
  spinal cord
• Synovial fluid ECF in the joints
• Aqueous humor and vitreous body ECF in the eyes

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Internal Environment

• Interstitial fluid surrounds all of the bodys
  cells and is therefore referred to as the
  internal environment of the body.

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Exchange of Materials

• Substances move back and forth between the
  interstitial fluid and the blood plasma.
• This exchange occurs at the blood capillaries.
• The exchange occurs as a result of diffusion
  (passive transport) and active transport.
• Movement of substances occurs in both directions
  across capillary walls.

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Diffusion

• Diffusion or passive transport is the movement of
  substances from a region of higher concentration
  to a region of lower concentration.

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Diffusion

• Substances move down their concentration gradient.

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Factors Influencing Diffusion

• Steepness of the concentration gradient.
• Temperature.
• Mass of the diffusing substance.
• Surface area.
• Diffusion distance.

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Active Transport

• In active transport, substances move from a
  region of lower concentration to a region of
  higher concentration. This requires energy in
  the form of ATP.

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Disturbance of Homeostasis

• Homeostasis is constantly being disturbed.
• External disruptions.
• Internal disruptions.
• Regulatory systems bring the body back into
  balance.
• Nervous system nerve impulses typically cause
  rapid changes.
• Endocrine system hormones work slowly.

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Feedback Systems

• A cycle of events in which the body is
  continually monitored, evaluated, changed,
  remonitored, reevaluated, and so on.
• Each monitored variable is a controlled
  condition.
• Stimulus a disruption that changes a controlled
  condition.

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3 Components of a Feedback System

• Receptor
• Control center
• Effector

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Receptor

• A body structure that monitors changes in a
  controlled condition and sends input to a control
  center.
• Input is in the form of nerve impulses or
  chemical signals.

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Control Center

• The control center sets the acceptable range of
  values for a controlled condition.
• The control center evaluates input from
  receptors.
• The control center generates output commands as
  needed.
• Output nerve impulses, hormones, chemical
  signals.

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Effector

• A body structure that receives output from the
  control center.
• Produces a response or effect that changes the
  controlled condition.

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Feedback Loop

• The system feeds back to change the controlled
  condition in some way.
• Feedback systems can produce either negative
  feedback or positive feedback.

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Negative Feedback Systems

• If the response reverses the original stimulus,
  the system is operating by negative feedback.

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Positive Feedback Systems

• If the response enhances or intensifies the
  original stimulus, the system is operating by
  positive feedback.

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Homeostatic Imbalances

• As long as the bodys controlled conditions stay
  within certain narrow limits, body cells function
  efficiently and the body stays healthy.
  Homeostasis is maintained.
• If homeostatic imbalance is moderate, a disorder
  or disease may occur If it is severe, death may
  result.

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Homeostatic Imbalances Continued

• Disorder any derangement or abnormality of
  function.
• Disease a more specific term for an illness
  characterized by a specific set of signs and
  symptoms.
• Local disease.
• Systemic disease.

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Homeostatic Imbalances Continued

• Symptoms subjective changes in body functions
  that are not apparent to an observer.
• Headache, nausea, anxiety.
• Signs objective changes that a clinician can
  observe and measure.
• Anatomical swelling, rash.
• Physiological fever, high BP, paralysis.

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Epidemiology

• The science that deals with why, when, and where
  diseases occur and how they are transmitted to
  individuals.
• Epi- upon.
• Demi - people.

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Pharmacology

• The science that deals with the effects and uses
  of drugs.
• Pharmac drug.

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Diagnosis

• The science and skill of distinguishing one
  disorder or disease from another.
• Dia through.
• -Gnosis knowledge.
• Working diagnosis.

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Information Utilized to Obtain a Diagnosis

• The patients signs and symptoms
• Medical history (S.O.A.P. Notes, review of
  systems, personal history, family history,
  medicines taken, etc.)
• Physical examination (inspection, palpation,
  auscultation, percussion, vital signs)
• Laboratory tests