Title: Answer this question?
1Answer this question?
- From your experience in living life, is there any
truthfulness to John Grays thesis - Men are from Mars, Women from Venus?
2Consider
- Are their significant differences in how you and
your spouse perceive opportunities and problems? - Are their significant emotional and intimacy
needs that distinguish you from your spouse? - Are their different modes of behavior between
you and your spouse? For example, are men
really wild at heart? do they really need
adventure, the opportunity to save a damsel in
distress, and be a hero to someone?
3Ethics of Justice vs. Ethics of Care
- An look into Carol Gilligans,
- In a Different Voice Psychological Theory and
Womens Development (Cambridge Harvard
University Press, 1982, 1993), - Chapter 2.
4Images of Relationships Chapter 2
- Harvard Professor Carol Gilligan (1936-) begins
Chapter 2 with the following introduction -
- in 1914 with his essay, on Narcissism, Freud
swallows his distaste at the thought of a
abandoning observation for barren theoretical
controversy and extends his map of the
psychological domain. Tracing the development of
the capacity to love, which he equates with
maturity and psychic health, he locates its
origins in the contrast between love for the
mother and love for the self. But in thus
dividing the world of love into narcissism
self-absorption and object relationships, he
find that while mens development becomes
clearer, womens becomes increasingly opaque.
5Images of Relationships Chapter 2
- Professor Gilligan continues
-
- The problem arises because the contrast between
mother and self yields two different
relationships. Relying on the imagery of mens
lives n charting the course of human growth,
Freud is unable to trace in women the development
of relationships, morality, or a clear sense of
self. This difficulty in fitting the logic of
his theory to womens experience leads him in the
end to set women apart, marking their
relationships, like their sexual life, as a dark
continent for psychology. Freud, On
Narcissism An Introduction (1914) XIV 212
(pg. 24).
6Images of Relationships Chapter 2
- Professor Gilligan interprets Freud as stating
- To Freud, though living surrounded by women and
otherwise seeing so much and so well, womens
relationships seemed increasingly mysterious,
difficult to discern, and hard to describe.
While this mystery indicates how theory can blind
observation, it also suggests that development in
women is masked by a particular conception of
human relationships. Since the imagery of
relationships shapes the narrative of human
development, the inclusion of women, by changing
that imagery, implies a change in the entire
account (pp. 24-5).
7The Shift in Imagery A Case StudyAmy and
Jake, two eleven year old students.
- Amy and Jake were participants in a rights and
responsibilities study which was designed to
explore different conceptions of morality and
self (pg. 25). - Both students were bright and articulate.
- Amy desires to become a scientist.
- Jake prefers English to math.
- Their moral judgments seem initially to confirm
familiar ideas about the differences between the
sexes (i.e., girls having an edge in terms of
moral development during the early school years
which will give way at puberty with the rise of
formal logical thought in boys (pg. 25).
8The Shift in Imagery A Case StudyAmy and
Jake, two eleven year old students.
-
- In the following moral dilemma we will see that
Jake and Amy see two different problems
9The Shift in Imagery A Case StudyAmy and
Jake, two eleven year old students.
- The Moral Dilemma to Resolve
- A man named Heinz considers whether or not to
steal a drug which he cannot afford to buy in
order to save the life of his wife. - Heinz predicament.
- The wifes disease.
- The druggists refusal to lower his price
- Should Heinz steal the drug? The reason for and
against stealing are then explored through a
series of questions that vary and extend the
parameters of the dilemma in a way design to
reveal the underlying structure of moral thought
10The Shift in Imagery A Case StudyAmy and
Jake, two eleven year old students.
- Jake sees the moral conflict between values of
property and life. He discerns the logical
priority of life, and uses that logic to justify
his choice. - For one thing, a human life is worth more than
money, and if the druggist only makes 1,000, he
is still going to live, but if Heinz doesnt
steal the drug, his wife is going to die (Why is
life worth more than money?). Because the
druggist can get a thousand dollars later from
rich people with cancer, but Heinz cant get his
wife again (why not?) Because people are all
different and so you couldnt get Heinzs wife
again.
11The Shift in Imagery A Case StudyAmy and
Jake, two eleven year old students.
- Jake was also asked if Heinz should steal the
drug if he doesnt love his spouse? - Jake replies that he should, saying that not
only is there a a difference between hating and
killing, but also if Heinz where caught, the
judge would probably think it was the right thing
to do. Asked about the fact that, in stealing,
Heinz would breaking the law, he says that the
laws have mistakes, and you cant go writing up a
law for everything that you can imagine. (pg.
26).
12The Shift in Imagery A Case StudyAmy and
Jake, two eleven year old students.
- Considering the law and recognizing its function
in maintaining social order, the judge, Jake
asserts, should give Heinz the lightest possible
sentence. Jake considers the law to be
man-made, subject to error and change (pg. 26).
13Kohlberg Analysis
Moral Maturity (6 steps)
14What are Jakes Assumptions/Methodology? The
Ethics of Justice
- Ethics of justice might be described as follows
- 1. Locates truth in math which is the only
thing that is totally logical pg. 26 (deductive
logic) certainty is found in logic (pg. 45). - - He establishes the problem between life
property as an equation proceeds to workout
the solution it is a contest of rights. - 2. Rational conclusion He assumes anyone
following reason would arrive a same
conclusion.
15What are Jakes Assumptions/Methodology? The
Ethics of Justice
- Ethics of justice might be described as follows
- 3. Differentiates morality from laws and
examines how laws can be corrected/changed in
order to have a principled conception of
justice. - 4. Self is defined via autonomy personal
confidence. - 5. Restraint from certain actions because of the
needs of others (p 38). - 6. Transposes a hierarchy of power into a
hierarchy of values (pg.32). - 7. Places the problem into an impersonal
conflict of claims (pg. 32).
16Images of Relationships Chapter 2
- Amy offers a different view regarding Heinzs
moral dilemma to the question whether the husband
should steal the drug? - Well, I dont think so. I think there might be
other ways besides stealing it, like if he could
borrow the money or make a loan or something, but
he really shouldnt steal the drug-but his wife
shouldnt die either (pg. 28). -
-
17Images of Relationships Chapter 2
- When Amy is asked why she should not steal the
drug, her response is - If he stole the drug, he might save his wife,
then, but if he did, he might have to go to jail,
and then his wife might get sicker again, and he
couldnt get more of the drug, and it might not
be good. So, they should really just talk it out
and find some other way to make the money (pg.
28). - Asked whether or not Heinz loves his wife she
maintained that he shouldnt steal or let her
die. And even if it was a stranger dying, Heinz
should still try to save her life, but not steal
the drug (pg. 28).
18Images of Relationships Chapter 2
- When asked again why Heinz shouldnt steal she
simply restates her position, Because its not
right. When asked to explain why, she states,
if he took it, he might not know how to give it
to his wife, and so his wife might still die. - She assumes that if the druggist were to see the
deathly situation, he would surely want to help
him save her. If they would just talk about it,
surely they could come to an understanding
(e.g., The druggist could give it to them and
have the husband pay for the drug later). - Lastly, she sees the problem being a failure of
the druggist it is not right for someone to
die when their life could be saved (pg. 29). -
19Test Results for Amy
- When the test is considered in view of
Kohlbergs definition of stages and sequence of
moral development, her moral judgment are a full
stage lower than those of Jake (pg. 30). - Scored as a mixture of stages 2 3 (shared
conventions of societal agreement), she is as
follows
20Test Results for Amy
- 1. Stunted by a failure of logic
- 2. Inability to think for herself
- 3. Her replies are evasive, unsure, lacks
confidence powerlessness. - 4. Does not consider property and law but rather
the effect that theft could have on the
relationship between Heinz and wife. - 5. Sees the dilemma as being the druggists
failure to respond to wife. - 6. The answer to the moral problem is
communication rather than the systematic
application of logic.
21Test Results for Amy
- In sum, following the Kohlberg test
- Jake sees a conflict between life and property
that be resolved by logical deduction and
categorical thinking. - Amy see a conflict between life and a lack of
communication the problem that can resolved by
honesty and open communication she appeals to
contextual relationships. - Kohlberg summarizes the test by stating that the
children arrive at answers that fundamentally
diverge because Jake demonstrates moral maturity
through the application of logic.
22A Network of Relationships
23Whats Carol Gilligans Interpretation?
- An Ethics of Care. Rather than being displayed
as a hierarchy of maturity through the
application of logic, females are fundamentally
different than males (pg. 31) -
- We need to ask the question
- What does Amy see that Jake doesnt?
- An ethics of care according to Carol Gilligan.
- In other words, like Amy, women have a different
perspective they are able to achieve the highest
level of moral development.
24Descriptive Elements of An Ethic of Care
- 1. The world is comprised of a web of
relationships sustained by communication (pg.
38). - -Actors in dilemmas are members of a network of
relationships on whose communication they all
depend (30). - 2. Self is defined through interpersonal
connection.
25Descriptive Elements of An Ethic of Care
- 3. Amy speaks of morality and responsibility as a
way of restoring community. - 4. Focuses on the need for a response.
- 5. Wherever it is broken, thus the problem of
loneliness constitutes a major moral problem. - 6. One is responsible to care for others, to
alleviate their loneliness.
26A Working Definition of an Ethic of Care
- A working definition of Ethic of Care
- 1. It is at least an ethical perspective that
seeks to preserve and nurture the concrete
relations in a web of relationships, attending
and positively responding to the needs of others.
27Other Observations Violence
- In a series of studies on how danger is perceived
between the sexes (pg. 42), men see danger - 1. Often in close personal affiliation than in
achievement and constructing danger from
intimacy - entrapment/betrayal
- smothering relationship
- humiliated by rejection/deceit.
28Other Observations
- Consider this fictional story
- Nick saw his life pass before his eyes. He
could feel the cold penetrating even deeper into
his body. How long had it been since he had
fallen through the ice-thirty-seconds, a minute?
It wouldnt take long for him to succumb to the
chilling grip of the mid-February Charles River.
What a fool he had been to accept the challenge
of his roommate Sam to cross the frozen river.
He knew all along that Sam hated him. Hated him
for being rich and especially hated him for being
engaged to Mary, Sams childhood sweetheart. But
Nick never realized until now that Mary also
hated him and really loved Sam. Yet there they
were, the two of them, calmly sitting on a beach
in the riverbend, watching Nick drown. Theyd
probably soon by married, and theyd probably
finance it with the life insurance policy for
which Mary was the beneficiary (pg. 40).
29Other Observations
- Women see danger
- 1. Danger of isolation,
- 2. A fear in standing out or being set apart by
success, left alone (pg. 42), - 3. A relational failure (pg 43).
- Thus, women see violence as a fracture of human
connection with the activities of care being
those activities that make the social world safe,
avoids isolation, and prevents aggression. - Conclusion by Gilligan Men and women may
experience attachment and separation in different
ways and that each sex perceives a danger which
the other does not see men in connection, women
in separation (pg. 42).
30Other Observations
- When the interconnections of the web are
dissolved by the hierarchical ordering of
relationships, when nets are portrayed as
dangerous entrapments impeding flight rather than
protecting against the fall, women come to
question whether what they have seen exists and
whether what they know from their experience is
true. These questions are raised not as
abstract philosophical speculations about the
nature of reality and truth but as personal
doubts that invade womens sense of themselves,
compromising their ability to act on their own
perceptions and thus their willingness to take
responsibility for what they do. This issue
becomes central in womens development during the
adolescent years, when thought becomes reflective
and the problem of interpretation thus enters the
stream of development itself (pg. 49).
31Other Observations The struggle to be
understood the struggle for uniqueness in a
context of relationships.
- In view of this hierarchical relationship of
ethics of justice, both psychologists and women
themselves find it difficulty to account for
their identity and moral belief they are in
crisis - A crisis that centers on her struggle to
disentangle her voice from the voices of others
and to find a language that represents her
experience of relationships and her sense of
herself (pg. 51).
32Images of Relationships Chapter 2
- In her concluding remarks, Professor Gilligan
offers the following statements (pp. 62-3). - While the truths of psychological theory have
blinded psychologists to the truth of womens
experience, that experience illuminates a world
where psychologists have found hard to trace, a
territory where violence is rare and
relationships appear safe. The reason womens
experience has been so difficult to decipher or
even discern is that a shift in the imagery of
relationships gives rise to a problem of
interpretation. The images of hierarchy and web,
drawn from the texts of mens and womens
fantasies and thoughts, convey different ways of
structuring relationships and are associated with
different views of morality and self. But these
images create a problem in understanding because
each distorts the others representation.
33Images of Relationships Chapter 2
- As the top of the hierarchy becomes the edge of
the web and as the center of a network of
connection becomes the middle of a hierarchical
progression, each image marks as dangerous the
place which the other defines as safe. Thus the
images of hierarchy and web inform different
modes of assertion and response the wish to be
alone at the top and the consequent fear that
others will get too close the wish to be at the
center of connection and the consequent fear of
being too far out on the edge. These disparate
fears of being stranded and being caught give
rise to different portrayals of achievement and
affiliation, leading to different modes of action
and different ways of assessing the consequence
of choice.
34Images of Relationships Chapter 2
- She goes on to say in the last paragraph
- The reinterpretation of womens experience in
terms of their own imagery of relationships thus
clarifies the experience and also provides a
nonhierarchical vision of human connection.
Since relationships, when case in the imagery of
hierarchy, appear inherently unstable and morally
problematic, their transposition into the image
of web changes an order of inequality into a
structure of interconnection.
35Images of Relationships Chapter 2
- She continues
- But the power of the images of hierarchy and
web, their evocation of feelings and their
recurrence in thought, signifies the embeddedness
of both of these images in the cycle of human
life. The experiences of inequality and
interconnection, inherent in the relation of
parent and child, then give rise to the ethics of
justice and care, the ideals of human
relationship,-the vision that self and other will
be treated as of equal worth, that despite
difference in power, things will be fair the
vision that everyone will be responded to and
included, that no one will be left alone or hurt.
These disparate visions in their tension reflect
the paradoxical truths of human experience-that
we know ourselves as separate only insofar as we
live in connection with others, and that we
experience relationship only insofar as we
differentiate other from self (pg. 62-3).
36Is this Distinction Philosophically Sound?
- B. Is it philosophically sound? If it is sound
as an alternative approach in ethical theory, a
feminine approach (in contrast to utilitarian
or deontological ethics) one might answer with a
resounding no. If it is sound in bringing to
the forefront how masculine structures dominated
Western thought and culture (from authority
structures to linguistics), oppressing,
discriminating, and nullifying feminine
development/identity in a modernistic worldview,
then same people might argue yes. -
-
37Is this Distinction Philosophically Sound?
-
- 4 reasons that may be used to argue that
Gilligans view is not philosophically sound -
- 1. Do boys inherently use formal logical
thought, relying on the conventions of
logic with no regard for interpersonal
relationships? - 2. If the world is constituted primarily by a
network of relationships, then we would take
justice into account that would involve
rules, maxims, or principles.
38Is this Distinction Philosophically Sound?
- 3. If ethics of care is interpreted as an
ethical approach rather than merely a
complementary perspective, advocating the
displacement of normative ethics such as
utilitarianism (for its emphasis on
calculations, horrific injustices, future
consequences, etc) or deontological ethics (for
its focus on rules, rationality, or absolutes to
the neglect of a persons welfare, etc), one
might argue that this model is not
philosophically sound for the following 5
reasons
39Is this Distinction Philosophically Sound?
- A. Care ethics lacks clarity in resolving moral
conflicts. - B. Vast differences on what constitutes care
nurture or even relations. Different
people, cultures, and sub-groups have vast
opinions on what constitutes care. (Some
people eat their neighbors for food whereas
others love their neighbors ?). Aristotles
Republic Spartan Rule, to Marxism,
postmillennialism, etc. - C. Is care a feminine morality, a master-value
and all other things are valuable only to the
extent that they can contribute to it?
40Is this Distinction Philosophically Sound?
- D. It fails to gives us significant help in the
practicalities on how we should behave it is
too nebulous (unlike utilitarianism with its
calculations or deontological ethics with its
universal and necessary a priori rules). - E. There is no distinctly feminine morality (cf.
Mary Wollstonecraft in Vindication of the Rights
of Woman). - - If there is a feminine morality does that
mean that utilitarianism and deontological
ethics is a masculine morality because it is not
as caring?
41Is this distinction philosophically sound?
- 4. Jean Grimshaws criticisms
- A. There is little agreement among women on what
accounts as female values. - B. Dependent on the polarization of masculine
and feminine which has itself been so closely
related to the subordination of women. - C. There is no autonomous realm of female
virtues - A Companion to Ethics, The Idea of a Female
Ethic edited by Peter Singer (Oxford
Blackwell, 1991), pg. 498.
42Is this Distinction Philosophically Sound?
-
- On the other hand, one could argue that this
distinction is ultimately true but the way it has
been handled is confusing and unclear. If the
following is true, then the ethics of care has
not been ignored in philosophy -
43Is this Distinction Philosophically Sound?
- Philosophically, (1) the ethics of justice is
better interpreted as a theory of individualism
and ethics of care as a theory of community. To
be sure, both views have been taught in
philosophy, though one could argue, analogous to
the critique of modernism by critical continental
thinkers, that (2) modernism at is apex (with all
its authority structures and conceptions) ignored
discriminated, oppressed, and even nullified
female identity, development, and voice (e.g.,
Freud) in contemporary thought and culture. - Lets take a closer look at these two issues.
- Consider the following quotes
44Consider the following
- Community
- AristotleIn the Ethics we are told that Man is
born for citizenship, and in the Politics we are
told, Man is by nature a political animal.
More explicitly, Aristotle tells us, The state
is by nature clearly prior to the family and to
the individual, since the whole is of necessity
prior to the part. - For Aristotle, then, the individual presupposes
community. The sustenance of community is the
moral goal, not the moral problem.
45Consider the following
- Community
- Hegel Patriotism does not simply mean the
willingness to make exceptional sacrifices.
Rather, it is the recognition that the community
is ones substantive groundwork and end (268). - Here again, in an Aristotelian vein, we see in
very plain language that the community is
presupposed by the individual for Hegel. The
moral self cannot define itself in separation
from others, but rather must understand itself as
constituted by its connection with others in the
community.
46Consider the following
- Community
- MarxLiving with others does not constitute for
Marx (as it seemed to do for Jake) a limitation
on personal freedom. Rather, only in the
community is personal freedom possible (197). - Here again we see a clear priority being
established the individual can only be defined
through relationship with other members of
community.
47Need for Contracts
- Individualism
- HobbesIn the state of nature, men are in the
condition which is called war, and such a war as
is of every man against every man. - The natural state of man is solitary. And it
becomes clear that this picture of humanity,
though perhaps softened a bit, is essentially
that of all contract theorists. For the whole
premise behind contract theory is that human
beings are essentially individuals, wildly
scrambling to pursue their own interests.
48According to Mill
- Individualism
- The liberty of the individual must be thus far
limited he must not make himself a nuisance to
other people. This is in Mills chapter
praising individualism as one of the elements of
well-being. - This, for Mill, is the pinnacle of moral
responsibility not being a nuisance. And this
is the sentiment expressed by Jake when he
explained that, if he wanted to kill himself, he
should do it with a gun rather than a stick of
dynamite, since the dynamite might kill others,
i.e., be a nuisance to them.
49Individualism according to Rawls and Nozick
- Individualism
-
- John Rawls and Robert Nozick, for example,
although differing from one another in
substantial ways, are unanimous in their
individualism. The community presupposes the
individual and, for both of them, having to live
in community with others constitutes the problem
that philosophy must solve.
50Individualism according to Rawls and Nozick
- Individualism
- In fact, the community is seen as nothing but
the sum of individual preferences, therefore
necessitating a morality of restraint. Even what
appears to be a morality of care, for Rawls, is
best characterized in terms of a limitation of
the individuals limitless pursuit of gain and
pleasure. So, although historically the ethic of
care has not been omitted, it has certainly been
overlooked in much modern and contemporary moral
thought.
51In Summary
- What Gilligan calls an ethic of care has not
been ignored in the history of philosophy.
Indeed, an ethic of care has been the
predominant model for moral thinking until the
last few centuries. Still, one can understand
why it might seem as though the ethic of care has
been omitted. The major thinkers in modern and
even contemporary moral and social-political
philosophy have been largely concerned with what
Gilligan calls an ethic of justice. This is in
view of the rise of modernism and its
ramifications in thought and culture, and the two
dominant ethical views prior to 1958 (Anscombes
article) Utilitarianism vs. Deontological
ethics.
52Oppression of a Female Identity
- To be sure, some say that care ethicists and
even more forceful feminist philosophers do bring
a warranted claim that needs to be considered in
contemporary society wherever gender oppression
exists, critical evaluation and reform is needed.
In fact, they argue that we need to end
oppression wherever it exists, whereby certain
types of people are not inherently seen as
inherently valuable, where voices are neglected,
rejected, discriminated, and persecuted. - Do you agree or disagree? Why?
- WHAT IS YOUR JUSTIFICATION?
53Alienation of a female identity in a Modernistic
Worldview
- However, like continental theorists, in
contemporary thought some blame modernism with
its emphasis upon rationality, individualism, and
categorical-systematic thinking whereby females
are defined, categorized related, and interpreted
in view of their synchronic relationship to
maleness, whether culturally, linguistically,
etc. (hence, even the word fe-male or wo-man)
to the extent that the psychological theory of
and study of women have been alienated (e.g.,
Freud). -
54Alienation of a female identity in a Modernistic
Worldview
- Whether there is really is a distinctly feminine
care ethics perspective, it is difficult to
deny that females have been ignored or
undervalued, and even alienated in certain
segments of Western thought and culture (e.g.,
Taliban Marxism).
55Lets consider the following?
- If women and men are significantly different in
how they perceive and respond to others
(relationships, opportunities, problems, etc),
then when it comes moral conflicts, how would
these two groups perceive and interpret moral
conflicts? What is the probability that men and
women would come to the same conclusion (consider
Jake and Amys case)? - All women jury vs. All men jury?
- 50 men vs.50 women on a jury?
- Moral conflicts at home?
- Moral conflicts at work?
- Moral conflicts at school?
56Considerations from a Biblical WorldviewA
Harmony of Differences
- 1. Radical feminism has blurred the distinctions
between the sexes, leaving men and women stranded
in regard to forming their sex roles.
Elizabeth Eliot. - 2. Archetypes (First Stamp) Man and Woman
were historical Adam and Eve. They were both
made by God, in the image of God, and placed in
moral responsibility (Gen. 1-2). - 3. God created women gloriously different than
man, from the man, for the man (fulfillment), and
named by the man. It was not out of dust, but
out of Adams rib.
57Considerations from a Biblical Worldview
- 4. Each were given a responsibility expressed in
different modality each expresses His image It
is a glorious harmony of differences. - 5. It was Gods idea of an operator and
responder. Just as there is an ebb and flow,
moon and sun, and lesser and greater. Likewise,
Operator (leader, Adam) and co-operator
(responder, Eve) (e.g., Waltz).
58Considerations from a Biblical Worldview
- 6. The harmony was defaced by sin (Gen. 3). The
original archetype was historical Adam and Eve
(Gen. 126-27 Gen. 9). The serpent came and
tempted her to upgrade her lifestyle. But, we
have to remember that humanity was not created to
bear the weight of responsibility from the Tree
of Good and Evil. She was too proud be a human
being, she wanted to be like God, appealing to
the lust of the eyes, flesh, and pride of life.
In Adams presence, she usurped Adams authority
and he abdicated his leadership. Thus, he came
to be responder and she became the operator.
Believed she would be deprived of fulfillment
from God, she yielded to that temptation.
59Considerations from a Biblical Worldview
- 7. In view of yielding to the temptation, Adam
ceased to husband Eve, failed to protect her,
failed to be the leader, and capitulated to Eves
whim. She took the initiative and usurped his
authority, reversing the roles. - 8. Where is fulfillment found? Is it in vocation
or obedience? Fulfillment is located in
obedience by saying yes Lord God, what do you
want me to do? (involves obedience and being
the appropriate godly person virtue).
60Considerations from a Biblical Worldview
- 9. What is a biblical view of subordination
(e.g., consider the doctrine of the Trinity)?
Many problems or reactions to a biblical view of
the harmony of differences is confusing
essence and function. But just as the Only
and only Triune God is one essence (Triunity),
each member of the Trinity, fully and equally
God, they also show an order or function of
subordination (The Holy Spirit submits to the
Son the Son submits to the Father). Made
according to our likeness Genesis 126-27. - 10. Philippians 19-10 relationships cannot be
divorced from discernment.
61Consider her perspective from a Biblical
worldviewWe are made in the image of God
- 1. Image content (intellect, will, emotion).
- 2. Image dominion (authority rule)
- 3. Image interpersonal relationships (in our
image) - 4. Representation (we are his Representatives)
- 5. Holistic (all the above seen like a
diamond).
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