EE3900 Computer Networks Data Encoding Slide 1

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Digital Data, Digital Signal

• Digital signal
• Discrete, discontinuous voltage pulses
• Each pulse is a signal element
• Binary data encoded into signal elements
• Unipolar - all signal elements have same sign
• Polar - one logic state represented by ve
  voltage the other by -ve voltage
• Data rate - rate of output data in bits per
  second
• Duration or length of a bit
• Time taken for transmitter to emit the bit

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Interpreting Signals

• Modulation rate
• Rate at which the signal level changes
• Measured in baud signal elements per second
• Mark and Space
• Binary 1 and Binary 0 respectively
• Need to know
• Timing of bits when they start and end, signal
  levels
• Factors affecting successful interpreting of
  signals
• Signal to noise ratio, data rate, bandwidth

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Comparison of Encoding Schemes (1)

• Signal Spectrum
• Lack of high freq reduces required bandwidth
• Lack of dc component allows ac coupling via
  transformer, providing isolation
• Concentrate power in the middle of the bandwidth
• Clocking
• Synchronizing transmitter and receiver
• External clock
• Sync mechanism based on signal

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Comparison of Encoding Schemes (2)

• Error detection
• Can be built in to signal encoding
• Signal interference and noise immunity
• Some codes are better than others
• Cost and complexity
• Higher signal rate ( thus data rate) requires
  higher costs
• Some codes require signal rate greater than data
  rate

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Encoding Schemes

• Nonreturn to Zero-Level (NRZ-L)
• Nonreturn to Zero Inverted (NRZI)
• Bipolar -AMI
• Pseudoternary
• Manchester
• Differential Manchester
• B8ZS
• HDB3

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Nonreturn to Zero-Level (NRZ-L)

• Two different voltages for 0 and 1 bits
• Voltage constant during bit interval
• no transition i.e. no return to zero voltage
• e.g. absence of voltage for zero, constant
  positive voltage for one
• More often, negative voltage for one value and
  positive for the other
• This is NRZ-L

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Nonreturn to Zero Inverted

• Nonreturn to zero inverted on ones
• Constant voltage pulse for duration of bit
• Data encoded as presence or absence of signal
  transition at beginning of bit time
• Transition (low to high or high to low) denotes a
  binary 1
• No transition denotes binary 0
• An example of differential encoding
• Data represented by changes rather than levels
• More reliable detection of transition rather than
  level

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NRZ
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Differential Encoding

• Data represented by changes rather than levels
• More reliable detection of transition rather than
  level
• In complex transmission layouts, it is easy to
  lose sense of polarity

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NRZ pros and cons

• Pros
• Easy to engineer
• Make good use of bandwidth
• Cons
• dc component
• Lack of synchronization capability

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Multilevel Binary

• Use more than two levels
• Bipolar-AMI
• zero represented by no line signal
• one represented by positive or negative pulse
• one pulses alternate in polarity
• No loss of sync if a long string of ones (zeros
  still a problem)
• No net dc component
• Lower bandwidth
• Easy error detection

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Pseudoternary

• One represented by absence of line signal
• Zero represented by alternating positive and
  negative
• No advantage or disadvantage over bipolar-AMI

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Bipolar-AMI and Pseudoternary
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Trade Off for Multilevel Binary

• Not as efficient as NRZ
• Each signal element only represents one bit
• In a 3 level system could represent log23 1.58
  bits
• Receiver must distinguish between three levels
  (A, -A, 0)
• Requires approx. 3dB more signal power for same
  probability of bit error

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Biphase

• Manchester
• Transition in middle of each bit period
• Transition serves as clock and data
• Low to high represents 1, high to low
  represents 0
• Used by IEEE 802.3, Ethernet
• Differential Manchester
• Mid bit transition is clocking only
• Transition at start of a bit period represents
  zero
• No transition at start of a bit period represents
  one
• a differential encoding scheme
• Used by IEEE 802.5, Token Ring

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Biphase Pros and Cons

• Con
• At least one transition per bit time and possibly
  two
• Maximum modulation rate is twice NRZ
• Requires more bandwidth
• Pros
• Synchronization on mid bit transition (self
  clocking)
• No dc component
• Error detection
• Absence of expected transition

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Modulation Rate
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Scrambling

• Use scrambling to replace sequences that would
  produce constant voltage
• Filling sequence
• Must produce enough transitions to sync
• Must be recognized by receiver and replace with
  original
• Same length as original
• No dc component
• No long sequences of zero level line signal
• No reduction in data rate
• Error detection capability

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B8ZS

• Bipolar With 8 Zeros Substitution
• Based on bipolar-AMI
• If octet of all zeros and last voltage pulse
  preceding was positive encode as 000-0-
• If octet of all zeros and last voltage pulse
  preceding was negative encode as 000-0-
• Causes two violations of AMI code
• Unlikely to occur as a result of noise
• Receiver detects and interprets as octet of all
  zeros

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HDB3

• High Density Bipolar 3 Zeros
• Based on bipolar-AMI
• String of four zeros replaced with one or two
  pulses
• Polarity of Preceding pulse No. of Bipolar pulse
  (ones) since last substitution
• Odd Even
• - 000- 00
• 000 -00-

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B8ZS and HDB3
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Digital Data, Analog Signal

• Public telephone system
• 300Hz to 3400Hz
• Use modem (modulator-demodulator)
• Amplitude shift keying (ASK)
• Frequency shift keying (FSK)
• Phase shift keying (PK)

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Modulation Techniques
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Amplitude Shift Keying

• Values represented by different amplitudes of
  carrier
• Usually, one amplitude is zero
• i.e. presence and absence of carrier is used
• Susceptible to sudden gain changes
• Inefficient
• Up to 1200bps on voice grade lines
• Used over optical fiber

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Frequency Shift Keying

• Values represented by different frequencies (near
  carrier)
• Less susceptible to error than ASK
• Up to 1200bps on voice grade lines
• High frequency radio
• Even higher frequency on LANs using co-ax

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FSK on Voice Grade Line
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Phase Shift Keying

• Phase of carrier signal is shifted to represent
  data
• Differential PSK
• Phase shifted relative to previous transmission
  rather than some reference signal

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Quadrature PSK

• More efficient use by each signal element
  representing more than one bit
• e.g. shifts of ?/2 (90o)
• Each element represents two bits
• Can use 8 phase angles and have more than one
  amplitude
• 9600bps modem use 12 angles , four of which have
  two amplitudes

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• This can be further extended, PSK up to 9600 bps
  with 12 phase angle and 4 more with higher
  amplitude, i.e. 16 values, 4-bit, 2400 baud (V.32
  Standard).
• The modulation rate in bauds, DR/b where R is
  the data rate (bps) and b the number of
  bits/signal.

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Performance of Digital to Analog Modulation
Schemes

• Bandwidth
• ASK and PSK bandwidth directly related to bit
  rate
• FSK bandwidth related to data rate for lower
  frequencies, but to offset of modulated frequency
  from carrier at high frequencies
• In the presence of noise, bit error rate of PSK
  and QPSK are about 3dB superior to ASK and FSK

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Analog Data, Digital Signal

• Digitization
• Conversion of analog data into digital data
• Digital data can then be transmitted using NRZ-L
• Digital data can then be transmitted using code
  other than NRZ-L
• Digital data can then be converted to analog
  signal
• Analog to digital conversion done using a codec
• Pulse code modulation
• Delta modulation

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Pulse Code Modulation(PCM) (1)

• If a signal is sampled at regular intervals at a
  rate higher than twice the highest signal
  frequency, the samples contain all the
  information of the original signal
• (Proof - Stallings appendix 5A)
• Voice data limited to below 4000Hz
• Require 8000 sample per second
• Analog samples (Pulse Amplitude Modulation, PAM)
• Each sample assigned n-bit digital value

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Pulse Code Modulation(PCM) (2)

• 4 bit system gives 16 levels
• Quantized
• Quantizing error or noise
• Approximations mean it is impossible to recover
  original exactly
• 8 bit sample gives 256 levels
• Quality comparable with analog transmission
• 8000 samples per second of 8 bits each gives
  64kbps

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• Advantages of Digitization
• use of statistical multiplexing
• avoid channel noise problems and signal
  attenuation by regeneration
• Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)
• Once quantized, signal can be relayed after
  regeneration over long distance without further
  distortion.
• In order to decrease quantizing error, companding
  techniques are used to give more quantization
  levels to signal with smaller amplitude.
• A-Law (European) and u-Law (US, Japan, HK)
  standards available

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Nonlinear Encoding

• Quantization levels not evenly spaced
• Reduces overall signal distortion
• Can also be done by companding

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Analog Data, Analog Signals

• Modulation - combining input signal m(t) and a
  carrier fc to produce s(t)
• Modulation are used for analog data
• higher freq for unguided transmission
• modulation permits freq-division multiplexing

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• if m(t) increases, both FM and PM require greater
  bandwidth but the same average power
• both FM and PM require greater bandwidth than AM
  as m(t) increases, the average power level for AM
  also increases

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Spread Spectrum

• Analog or digital data
• Analog signal
• Spread data over wide bandwidth
• Makes jamming and interception harder
• Frequency hoping
• Signal broadcast over seemingly random series of
  frequencies
• Direct Sequence
• Each bit is represented by multiple bits in
  transmitted signal chipping code