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Human Development

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Title: Human Development

1
Human Development
2
I. Introduction To Development

A. Developmental Psychology the branch of
psychology that studies the physical, mental and
social changes throughout the human life cycle.

B. The major issues in development
1. Nature Vs Nurture The question involves
which has more impact on our development the
traits we inherit or the environment that we live
in
2. Continuity Vs Stages (discontinuity) Asks
the question is development gradual, or does it
proceed through a sequence of separate stages
3. Stability Vs Change Do our personality
traits persist or do we become different as we age

4
II. Prenatal Development

A. Prenatal Development
1. The Germinal Stage
a. Zygote the fertilized egg it enters a
2-week period of rapid cell division and develops
into an embryo
b. At about 7 days the egg becomes implanted on
the uterine wall.
c. Also during this time period the placenta is
formed. The placenta both provides support for
the developing human and also helps to process
waste material.

2. embryo the developing human organism from
about 2 weeks after conception through the second
month
3. Fetus the developing human organism from
about 9 weeks through birth

6
2 Months
4 Months
40 Days
45 Days
7

4. Teratogen Agents such as chemicals and
viruses, that can reach the embryo or fetus
during prenatal development and cause harm
5. Fetal Alcohol Syndrome physical and
cognitive abnormalities in children caused by a
pregnant womans heavy drinking. Symptoms
include facial mis-proportions

6. Development occurs
a. cephalocaudal head first then the body
b. and Proximodistal meaning form the center
outward

9
Development of Newborns

Once upon a time,
you were like this too

10
What is an infant?

While there is no formal definition of an infant,
a child is considered an infant until the age of
1 or until he/she can walk

The Competent Newborn
1. Reflex Abilities
a. Rooting reflex a babys tendency, when
touched on the cheek, to open the mouth turn the
head and search for the nipple
b. Sucking reflex the tendency to suck on an
object placed in the mouth

c. Grasping reflex If an object is placed in
the palm or in the foot pad, the baby will try to
grasp it and hold on.

d. Moro reflex when startled a baby will first
lash out with its arms and legs and then try to
pull its arms and legs in to make it as small as
possible.
e. Babinski reflex When a babys foot is
stroked he or she will spread the toes.

2. Research on the capabilities of babys
a. In regard to hearing
Babies prefer the sound of a human voice,
especially their mother
babies will suck more vigorously on a pacifier
that triggers a recording of their mothers voice
b. In regards to smell
Babies will turn their heads toward the smell of
their own mother

c. In regards to vision?
A newborn can only see roughly 18 cm away from
them
Babies prefer to look at an object that resembles
a human face
They prefer objects that are between 8 - 12
inches away - which happens to be about the
distance from the breast to the mothers face

16
Perceptual Development

Babies are always perceiving what is in their
world and the world around themselves

Gibson and Walk experimented with babies
perceptual ability
They found that children like patterns and faces
the most

Younger babies were not afraid.
Older babies realized the drop off and did not
attempt to crawl across the checkerboard table

19
Language Development

By the time a baby is 2 years old he/she will
know up to 1,500 words
By the age of five have a rather lengthy
vocabulary
Between the ages of 2-5 a child learns, on
average, 10 words per day

Is language learned or innate?
Chomsky vs Skinner
Chomsky- Just happens- children acquire
untaught words and grammar at a fast rate
Skinner- association, imitation and reinforcement

21
Physical Development

2 months Raise head 45 degrees
4 months Sit with support
7 months Pull self into standing position
10 months Creep (slowly crawl)
12 months Walking

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c.
3. Research Strategies
a. Habituation decreasing responsiveness with
repeated stimulation
b. Used with infants to study vision - As
infants gain familiarity with repeated exposure
to a visual stimulus, their interest wanes and
they look away sooner.

25
III. Infancy and Childhood

A. Physical Development
1. Brain Development
a. Maturation biological growth processes that
enable orderly changes in behavior, relatively
uninfluenced by experience

b. Maturation and Infant Memory
i. We have few early memories because we lack
the neural connections to make memories
ii. What are two examples of memory feats of
infants
3 month olds remembering to use their foot to
propel a mobile
shown an out-of-focus picture 3 year olds will
recall the picture better if they were shown a
clear version, 3 months earlier even though they
have no conscious recollection of ever seeing the
picture

c. Motor Development
i. The sequence of motor development is
universal
ii. The timing varies from culture to culture
There are genetic factors that influence
development as well. Twins begin walking on
about the same day
Motor development is not entirely a process of
maturation, the environment does play a role.

B. Cognitive Development
1. In General
a. Prior to Jean Piaget most people believed
that children knew less as opposed to knowing
differently
b. Piaget believed cognitive development
occurred in a series of stages
c. According to Piaget the driving force behind
our development is our struggle to make sense of
and interpret our ever changing environment
d. Schema a concept or framework that
organizes and interprets information

e. Assimilation interpreting ones new
experience in terms of ones existing schemas
f. Accommodation adapting ones current
understandings to incorporate new information
2. Piagets Theory and Current thinking
a. cognition all the mental activities
associated with thinking, knowing and remembering
b. Sensorimotor stage
i. Defined the stage from birth to about 2
years of age during which infants know the world
mostly in terms of the sensory impressions and
motor activities

ii. Object permanence the awareness that
things continue to exist even when not perceived

iii. Egocentrism the fact that infants can not
distinguish between itself and its environment
iv. Evidence for this theory includes Piagets
study on object permanence. Between the ages of
0 to 5 months an object that was visibly hidden
will not be searched for
v. Evidence against includes
the study done by Bower and Wishart in which a
child between 1 and 4 months was reaching for an
object when the room was darkened. Under
infra-red light the baby was observed to continue
reaching for the object.
Also Bower did a study on 1 month olds where an
object was shown then placed behind a screen.
The object was then removed and the screen
lifted. The babies seemed to show surprise

c. The preoperational stage
i. is the stage from about 2 - 6 or 7 years old
during which a child learns to use language but
does not yet comprehend the mental operations of
concrete logic
ii. Conservation the principle that properties
such as mass volume and number remain the same
despite changes in the forms of the objects

iii. Judy DeLoach illustrate this concept in her
experiment where a dog was hidden in model room
and then in a real room. 2 1/2 year olds couldnt
use model 3 year olds could
iv. Egocentrism the inability of the
preoperational child to take anothers view point

v. Theory of Mind
Peoples ideas about their own and others mental
states- about their feelings, perceptions, and
thoughts and the behavior these might predict
Autism impacts the Theory of Mind because
children with autism have difficulty removing
themselves from their own perspective. Thus in
the study by Peterson Siegal the child with
autism cannot separate their knowledge from that
of Sally the doll.

vi. Evidence for
In class inclusion test children can not use sets
and subsets like in the bead experiment
Piaget and Inhelder used the Three Mountain task
to demonstrate egocentrism in children. The
participants could not express the scene from
anothers perspective

Conservation experiments use test like moving
water from a fat short beaker to a large beaker
to see if a child understands reversibility
vii. Evidence against
McGarrigle et al found that when they made the
task more understandable and appropriate children
in the preoperational stage with a mean age of 6
could accomplish this type of class inclusion
test In this case the transformation to the rows
was made by a naughty teddy bear
Hughes demonstrated that 3.5 year olds could
complete the three mountain task if set up
differently. In his demonstration a boy doll had
to hide from two police dolls

d. Describe the Concrete operational stage
i. Defined from about ages 6 or 7 to 11 during
which children gain the mental operations that
enable them to think logically about concrete
events
ii. Evidence for
Children can now perform conservation of liquid
experiments because they can compensate for the
changes in height and width and they can mentally
reverse the procedure
They can also pass the conservation of number
test as they are no longer fooled by how far
apart the items are
iii. Evidence against McGarrigle and Donaldson
who found that children in the preoperational
stage could perform these tasks

e. Describe the Formal operational stage
i. Defined beginning about age 12 the stage
during which people begin to think logically
about abstract concepts
ii. Evidence for
Child can now to transitive inference tasks
without the use of manipulatives (objects)
Children when given a problem will use deductive
reasoning and logic to solve a problem rather
than trial and error
iii. Evidence against Gladwin pointed out how
Piaget overlooked culture using the Polynesian
navigators as an example

3. Reflecting on Piaget
a. Theoretical Criticism
i. Age
Much research has seemingly demonstrated that
children posses many of the cognitive abilities
that Piaget outlined at ages much earlier than he
expected
Often improving upon the method of assessing the
child reveals their cog. abilities better
In addition, Piaget seemed to have over estimated
peoples formal operational ability some
research has even suggested that only on third of
the population actually reach this stage
ii. Concepts
Some of the concepts are vague and the stages
often show so much overlap that development is
better described as continuous

By focusing on the childs mistakes, Piaget may
have over looked important abilities that
children do possess
4. Lev Vygotsky
a. Russian researcher who placed more emphasis
on social interaction
b. More similar to Bruner than Piaget.
c. Focuses on the role of social interaction and
language on the acquisition of cognitive
abilities.

d. The Zone of Proximal Development
A child maybe capable of higher cognitive
functioning with the aid of a more able helper.
For example if you give a young child a puzzle
that is above their level they may struggle to
complete it. However with the adults guidance
they might be able to complete the same puzzle

C. Social Development
1. Attachment
a. Attachment an emotional tie with another
person shown in young children by their seeking
closeness to the caregiver and showing distress
on separation
b. Psychologist are concerned with how
attachments form, if there is a critical period
in which they must form and what happens if these
attachments do not form.
2. How does attachment form
a. Pre-attachment phase 0-3 months infant
shows a preference for humans over objects

b. Indiscriminate phase 3-7 months infant
can distinguish between people and allows
strangers to handle it.
c. Discriminate phase 7-9 months Infant
develops specific attachments to certain people
and shows distress upon separation from them.
May show a fear of strangers
d. Multiple Attachment Phase 9 months and
beyond Increasingly independent and forms other
bonds beyond the initial strong attachments.

3. Forms of Attachment
a. Type A Avoidant or detached approximately
20 of sample, infant ignores mother, not
impacted by her leaving or arriving.
b. Type B Securely Attached 70 of sample
plays while mother is present, distressed when
mother leaves, and relieved when she returns
c. Type C Anxious-resistant or ambivalent
10 of sample distressed by mother leaving but
not comforted by her return

4. Stranger Anxiety aka Separation Anxiety
a. The fear of strangers that infants commonly
display at about 8 months of age
b. Purpose it is the ability to evaluate
people as unfamiliar and possibly threatening and
therefore helps protect babies

5. The Harlow Study
In Harlows famous study he put a caregiver (wire
monkey with food) and a comfort giver (wire
monkey covered with fur) in the cage
He found that the monkeys became more attached to
the fur monkey rather than the nutrition mother.
When in stressful situations the monkeys returned
to the fur mother.
The findings illustrated the importance of body
contact in attachment and relate to humans in
that they too require this attachment to feel safe

Contact comfort in primates the innate pleasure
derived from close physical contact.
6. Familiarity
a. Critical Periods an optimal period shortly
after birth when an organisms exposure to
certain stimuli or experiences produces proper
development
b. Imprinting the process by which certain
animals form attachments during a critical period
very early in life

c. The Lorenz Studies
he studied ducks and geese by changing the first
object they came into contact with after they
were hatched - these included himself and even
objects like balls
The application of his studies to humans is
questioned especially in the area of how
important it is to humans and if there is even a
critical period in which this contact must be
established

7. Responsive Parenting
a. Mary Ainsworth and other believed that
responsive parenting would lead to secure
attachment.
b. One possible explanation of this phenomenon
is that it is learned from the mother - rats pups
raised by attentive adoptive mothers are more
likely to be attentive to their own pups

c. Studies on responsive parenting
i. Mary Ainsworths study placed young
children into strange situations and then
measured their response - those children who were
more securely attached did not react with the
distress that the insecurely attached children did

Monkeys raised by artificial mothers were
terror-stricken when placed in strange situations
without their surrogate mothers

ii. The Van den Boom study
100 6-9 month old temperamentally difficult
children randomly assigned to one of two
conditions
one groups mothers were given special training
on responsive parenting the others received no
training
The result showed that at age 1, 68 of the
babies in the experimental condition had become
securely attached.

8. Deprivation of Attachment
a. Children raised in institutions such as
orphanages often are unable to make connections
later in life due to the lack of relationships as
a child

b. When raised in isolation Harry Harlows
monkeys
i. cowered in fear or lashed out aggressively
when later placed with other monkeys
ii. many were unable to mate
iii. those artificially impregnated were either
neglectful or abusive parents
c. This relates to criminal behavior in that
i. many people who abuse children were also
abused themselves
ii. 6/7 juveniles awaiting execution in one
prison were horribly abused as children

9. Disruption of Attachment Infants removed
from their foster mothers experience difficulties
at first - but by age 10 there is no visible
effects
10. Does Day Care Affect Attachment
a. In a study by Sandra Scarr, results indicate
that in the case of high quality day care
programs there appears to be no problems - kids
are very sturdy
b. Ideal day care programs warm supportive
interactions with adults in a safe, healthy, and
stimulating environment - an environment in which
any child can frequently talk with a familiar
adult caregiver

c. Studies on infant day care
i. Belsky and Zigler found that children who
attended over 20 hrs/week of early day care were
less secure as 1 yr olds and more likely to be
disobedient
ii. two separate studies showed that children
who were in quality programs prior to 6 months of
age were more outgoing, popular, and academically
successful
D. Self Concept
1. Self concept a sense of ones identity and
personal worth
2. According to Darwin Self-concept emerges when
a child recognizes himself in the mirror

3. This idea was tested by dabbing a dot of
rouge on a childs nose - at around 15-18 months
the child will touch his own nose thus showing
they recognize the face in the mirror is their
own
E. Child Rearing Practices
1. Authoritarian parenting style imposes rules
and expects obedience
2. Permissive style makes few demands and uses
little if any punishment

57
Parental Authority Questionaire

Column 1 add up 1 6 10 13 14 1719 21
24 28
Column2 add up 2 3 7 9 12 16 18 25 26
29
Column 3 add up 4 5 8 11 15 20 22 23
27 30

58
Results of Authoritative Parenting Style
59

3. Authoritative parenting style parents are
both demanding and responsive - they exert
control not only by setting rules and enforcing
them but also by explaining the reasons and
especially with older children, encouraging open
discussion and allowing exceptions when making
the rules
4. Baumrinds studies on parenting style
a. Shows that children whose parents use an
authoritative style have the highest self esteem,
self reliance and social competence

b. These findings maybe flawed because
i. Correlation does not causation
ii. Could the childs temperament change the way
the parent parents
5. Further studies on parenting style
a. One study examined two types of parenting
techniques
Power assertion a method of child rearing in
which the parent uses punishment and other
aversive techniques to control the childs
behavior
Induction a method of child rearing in which
the parent appeals to the childs own abilities,
sense of responsibility and feeling for others to
control the childs behavior.
b. Results showed that the children who were
punished were more likely to be aggressive and
unruly later on in life.

61
Prompt 7

You are a student aide for the AP English
Literature teacher. Your friend is in danger of
failing the class. If they fail they will loose
their scholarship to college. They ask you to
steal the next test for them. Write down AS MANY
reasons (justifications) you can think of as to
why you choose to do it or not do it.

62
IV. Adolescence

A. Adolescence the transition period from
childhood to adulthood, extending from puberty to
independence
B. Physical Development
1. Puberty the period of sexual maturation,
during which a person becomes capable of
reproducing

2. Primary Sex Characteristics the body
structures (ovaries, testes, and external
genitalia) that make sexual reproduction possible
3. Secondary Sex Characteristics non
reproductive sexual characteristics, such as
female breasts and hips, male voice quality, and
body hair
4. Menarche the first menstrual period

C. Cognitive Development
1. During adolescence a period of developing
reasoning power emerges. This relates to
Piagets last stage of cognitive development -
the Formal Operational stage where the person is
able to reason logically about abstract ideas

2. During adolescence a period of developing
moral growth also emerges
a. Piaget believed that moral reasoning grew as
cognitive abilities developed
b. Building on this idea Lawrence Kohlberg
developed a theory of stages of moral reasoning
c. He studied this idea by presenting moral
dilemmas to his subjects and then asking them to
explain why they responded in the way they did.

d. Stages of Moral Development
i. Pre-conventional level
stage 1. Characterized by the avoidance of
punishment
stage 2. Characterized by the desire to further
ones own desires
ii. Conventional level
stage 3. Characterized by living up to the
expectations of others
stage 4. Characterized by doing ones duty
iii. Post-conventional level
stage 5 characterized by the understanding that
values and rules are relative but generally need
to be upheld
stage 6. Universal ethical principles

3. Moral Action
a. One of the best predictors of a persons
actions is what his friends do.
b. We can teach children moral reasoning through
discussion and action.
4. Critique of moral reasoning
a. Kohlbergs stages has been criticized as
being to Euro centric. His system values the
individual more whereas certain cultures are more
collective.

b. Carol Gilligan has argued that Kohlbergs
model was biased towards males
i. In her theory men show a morality of
justice based on equality whereas women show a
morality of care based on the idea that none
should be hurt
ii. She developed three stages of moral
development for women Care for ones own
survival, Care for others, and Care for integrity
of self and other)
D. Social Development
1. Erik Erikson a developmental psychologist
of the psychodynamic perspective - his theory
states that we develop socially in stages
2. Contends that each stage of life has its own
psychosocial task, a crisis that needs resolution

3. Stages of Psychosocial Development before
Puberty
a. Infancy Age 0 through 1
i. known as the Trust Vs. Mistrust stage.
ii. Task if needs are met infants develop a
sense of basic trust
b. Toddlerhood 1 - 2 years
i. Known as Autonomy Vs. Shame and doubt
ii. Task learn to exercise will and do things
for themselves or they will doubt their own
abilities
c. Preschooler 3 -5 years
i. Known as Initiative Vs. guilt
ii. Task learn to initiate tasks and carry out
plans, or they feel guilty about efforts to be
independent
d. Elementary School 6 - Puberty
i. Known as Competence Vs. Inferiority
ii. Task children learn the pleasure of
applying themselves to tasks, or they feel
inferior

4. Stages After Puberty
a. Adolescence teen years into early 20s
i. Known as Identity Vs. Role Confusion
ii. Task Teenagers work at refining a sense of
self by testing roles and then integrating them
to form a single identity, or they become
confused about who they are
iii. Identity ones sense of self according
to Erikson, the adolescents task is to solidify
a sense of self by testing and integrating
various roles
b. Young Adulthood Age 20s - Early 40s
i. Known as Intimacy Vs. Isolation
ii. Task Young adults struggle to form close
relationships and to gain the capacity for
intimate love, or they feel socially isolated

iii. Gender and Social Connectedness
According to Carol Gilligan males are more
individualist - they use communication to offer
solutions to problems whereas females are more
relationship oriented
Giulianos research found that males are more
willing to hazard guesses to questions rather
than admit they just dont know. She coined this
the male answer syndrome
iv. Intimacy the ability to form close,
loving relationships a primary development

72
VI. Adulthood

A. Physical Changes
1. Menopause the time of natural cessation of
menstruation
2. Physical Changes in later life
a. Life Expectancy as a whole we now live longer
than ever before. Women live longer than males
b. Sensory abilities diminish with age. For
example visual acuity diminishes, reaction time
slows down, muscle strength diminishes, as well
as many other areas.

c. Dementia and Alzheimer's
i. Alzheimers a progressive and irreversible
brain disorder characterized by gradual
deterioration of memory, reasoning, language, and
finally physical functioning
Research on estrogen therapy and Alzheimers
shows that women who took estrogen supplements
for at least 10 years were 40 less likely to
suffer from Alzheimers
3. Cognitive Changes
a. Aging and Memory
i. According to researchers Schonfield and
Robertson recall memory declines with age, but no
measurable decline in recognition tasks has been
demonstrated
ii. Information with out a clear meaning or
purpose ( nonsense syllables) and timed events
(like remembering medication

b. Aging and Intelligence
i. Cross-sectional studies are studies in which
people of different ages are compared with one
another
ii. These type of studies show that intelligence
declines with age
iii. a longitudinal study is research in which
the same people are restudied and re-tested over
long periods of time
iv. These type of studies show that intelligence
remains stable until very late in life
A cohort sequential study combines cross
sectional and longitudinal. Corrects for the
cohort effect
The cohort effect occurs because people raised
in similar times might exhibit similar qualities.
v. Crystallized intelligence Ones accumulated
knowledge and verbal skills - which tend to
increase with age
vi. Fluid intelligence Ones ability to reason
speedily and abstractly - tends to decrease
during late adulthood

4. Social Changes
a. Middle Adulthood 40s - 60s
i. Known as Generativity Vs. Stagnation
ii. Task the middle-aged discover a sense of
contributing to the world, usually through family
and work. If they do not develop this sense the
will feel a lack of purpose
b. Late Adulthood 60s and Up
i. Stage Integrity Vs. Despair
ii. Task A sense of satisfaction with the life
that has been led or a sense of failure and
despair at opportunities lost
c. Social clock the culturally preferred
timing of social events such as marriage,
parenthood and retirement

B. Death and Dying
1. Kubler-Ross Stages of Death
a. Denial resistance to the initial discovery
by seeking other opinions or refusal to accept
death will occur
b. Anger and resentment often directed at
others out of resentment, frustration and
feelings of injustice (Why me?)
c. Bargaining for more time with God, fate or
medical professionals to change the situation
d. Depression when the inevitability of death
is realized. Preparatory grieving or depression
may occur for all that will be lost
e. Acceptance giving up to death, becoming
more resolved withdrawn and emotionally drained

2. Ramsay and DeGroots stages of grief
a. Shock the initial reaction
b. Disorganization inability to plan
c. Denial behaving as if the deceased is still
alive
d. Depression pinning or despair
e. Guilt for thoughts or behavior towards the
dead.
f. Anxiety about inability to cope with the
changes
g. Aggression resulting from anger and
frustration
h. Resolution increasing acceptance of death
i. Reintegration reorganization and adjustment

3. Evaluation
a. Much of the evidence comes from observational
studies
b. Various responses based on culture
i. Expression of grief varies Japanese
stoicism to Muslim wailing
ii. Duration varies from Navajo 4 day period to
Orthodox Jew period of 1 year
iii. Attitudes vary from fear of the dead by the
Hopi to worshiping of the dead by practitioners
of Japanese Shinto

In closing-from Dylan Thomas
Do not go gentle into that good night,
Old age should burn and rave at close of day
Rage, rage against the dying of the light.

80
Prompt 10

What is the most difficult part of being a
teenager in society today?

81
Bell-ringer 4

What do you think will be the best part of being
an adult out on your own?
What will be the worst?
Do you think kids your age are in too big of a
hurry to grow-up? Why or why not?

82
Being Old

1. Tape the Popsicle sticks to your fingers so
that they DO NOT stick out over the ends.
2. Tape the plastic wrap baggie to your head.
3. The helpers job is very important. They
must maintain the safety of their patient.

Once the person has become elderly they must
perform the following tasks in no particular
order.
Make change
read a telephone book
tie a shoe
button a jacket or shirt
get a drink
Negotiate the stairwell
Write their name

Once you have completed these tasks switch roles.
After both of you have completed these tasks.
You should clean up your mess and start your
homework.
The assignment is to write two separate journal
entries about your experiences today.

Each journal entry should be about a page in
length.
One journal entry will talk about what it was
like to be old in class and what it may feel
like in reality.
The second entry should talk about what it was
like to have to help someone today and what it
may be like in reality.

86
Prompt 12

Write 5 multiple choice test questions on human
development. Also create one essay question.

87
Possible Essay Questions

One of the great psychological questions is
whether development occurs in stages or is
continuous. Discuss the moral, social and
cognitive development of children in the first 5
years of life.