What is Memory?

1
What is Memory?

• The Processes of encoding, storage retrieval

2
What is Memory?

• The encoding, storage and later retrieval of a
  response that was previously acquired.
• The Learning Process is made up of Two Stages
  Acquisition Retention

3
Acquisition

• Acquisition The initial learning of
  information.
• Affected by
• 1.     Attention Process
• 2.     Degree of Motivation
• 3.     Preparedness of the Learner
• 4.     Type of Practice Followed
• 5.     Kind of Material to be Learned
• 6.     Transfer of Training (Application)

4
Situational Factors that Influence Acquisition

• Attention
• Sensory Gating process by which the brain sends
  messages to some of the sensory systems to
  decrease the amount of information they must deal
  with.
• Example Feeling of clothes, white noise
• Parallel vs. Sequential Attention (parallel
  sensory processing)
• Parallel Useful only when receiving new info.
  Brain processes several different stimuli
  simultaneously.
• Sequential Attention Higher Level, treat each
  piece of info separately in order.
• o      

5
Factors Influencing Attention

• Feature Extraction (Decoding) Sensory System
  selects which incoming stimuli to process then
  establishes meaning for these stimuli.
• Example r is different from f
• Characteristics of the Learner
• Individual Differences development, motivation,
  expression of emotions
• Preparedness Time Place. Example Chimps
  cant speak but are prepared for signing.
• The Learning Curve Performance is not always an
  accurate indicator of learning.

6
Methods of Acquisition

• 1.  Overlearning any repetition over the point
  of acquisition
• Follows the law of diminishing returns more is
  not always better.
• 2.     Knowledge of Results Feedback any info
  about the effect of a response.
• Leads to faster acquisition of new material
• Immediate feedback is more beneficial than
  delayed
• 3.     Distribution of Practice Study - Rest -
  Study Rest. (Take Breaks)
• 4.     Whole-Part Distribution Deciding whether
  to learn the entire amount of material as a whole
  or divide it into parts to learn. Depends on the
  task.
• 5.     Active vs. Passive Approach The more
  involved (active) you are in your learning the
  better you will remember it.
• 6.     Primacy Recency Effects Tend to
  remember info that came first and last.
• 7. Content We are better able to
  remember info that we can make associations to
  and infer meaning from.

7
(No Transcript)
8
The Information-Processing Model
9
Information Processing Model

• Encoding - getting information into the memory
  system
• Storage - the retaining of encoded information
  over time
• Retrieval - getting encoded information out of
  memory storage

10
How is Our Memory Like a Computer?

• Both encode, store, and retrieve data
• We can activate information from our long term
  memory (hard drives)
• Information on the screen disappears if not used
  right away short term memory

11
EncodingSerial Position Effect
12
Serial Position Effect

• The tendency to recall the first and last items
  in a list
• Primacy effect the ability to recall
  information near the beginning of a list
• Recency effect the ability to recall
  information near the end of a list

13
Primacy/Recency EffectorSerial Position
Effect(From Craik Watkins, 1973)
14
EncodingSpacing Effect
15
Spacing Effect

• The tendency for distributed practice to yield
  better retention than is achieved through massed
  practice (cramming)

16
Distributed Practice

• Spreading rehearsal out in several sessions
  separated by period of time
• Usually enhances the recalling of the information

17
Massed Practice

• Putting all rehearsal together in one long
  session (cramming)
• Not as effective as distributed practice

18
EncodingEncoding Meaning
19
Semantic Encoding

• The encoding of meaning
• Encoding information that is meaningful enhances
  recall

20
Self-Reference Effect

• The enhanced semantic encoding of information
  that is personally relevant
• Making information meaningful to a person by
  making it relevant to ones life

21
Semantic Encoding(From Craik Tulving, 1975)
22
Acoustic Encoding

• Encoding information based on the sounds of the
  information

23
Acoustic Encoding (From Craik Tulving, 1975)
24
Visual Encoding

• Encoding information based on the images of the
  information

25
Visual Encoding (From Craik Tulving, 1975)
26
EncodingOrganizing Information
27
Chunking

• Organizing information into meaningful units
• More information can be encoded if organized into
  meaningful chunks.

28
(No Transcript)
29
EncodingMnemonic Devices
30
Mnemonic Device

• A memory trick or technique for remembering
  specific facts
• Every good boy does fine to remember the notes
  on the lines of the scale
• People say you could have odd lots of good
  years as a way to remember how to spell
  psychology

31
Method of Loci

• A mnemonic device in which the person associates
  items to be remembered with imaginary places

32
Peg-Word System

• A mnemonic device in which the person associates
  items to remember with a list of peg words
  already memorized
• Goal is to visualize the items to remember with
  the items on the pegs

33
Peg Word System
34
Categorical Clustering

• Grouping items you want to remember by categories
• Example Grocery list organized by aisles or
  food category.

35
Acronyms

• Set of letters from a word or phrase in which
  each letter stands of a certain other word or
  concept.
• Example HOMES Names of the Great Lakes

36
Acrostics

• Initial letters that taken in order form a word
  or phrase that trigger what you want to remember.
• Example Please Excuse My Dear Aunt Sally (Math)
• Example Every Good Boy Deserves Fudge (Music)

37
Interactive Images

• Link a set of isolated words by creating visual
  representations for the words and then picturing
  interactions among the items.
• Example If you had to remember a list of random
  things like an aardvark, pencil, table and book
  picture the aardvark sitting on a table holding
  pencil in its claws and writing in a book.

38
Keyword System

• Learning isolated words by linking sounds and
  meanings together.
• Example Elvis shook his pelvis
• Stalactite holds tight to the ceiling
• Fibula lies beneath the Tibula
• Tibula is on top of the fibula

39
Do Mnemonics Work?

• Watch this 8 minute video on how the worlds best
  memory competitors use mnemonics.

40
Storage
41
Three Storage Systems

• Three distinct storage systems
• Sensory Memory
• Short-Term Memory (includes Working Memory)
• Long-Term Memory

42
StorageSensory Memory
43
Sensory Memory

• The brief, initial coding of sensory information
  in the memory system
• Iconic store visual information, ½
  second
• Echoic store sound information, 2-3
  seconds
• Information held just long enough to make a
  decision on its importance

44
StorageShort-Term Memory
45
Short-Term Memory

• Conscious, activated memory which holds
  information briefly before it is stored or
  forgotten
• Holds approximately seven, plus or minus two,
  chunks of information
• Can retain the information as long as it is
  rehearsed
• Also called working memory

46
StorageLong-Term Memory
47
Long-Term Memory

• The relatively permanent and limitless storehouse
  of the memory system
• Holds memories without conscious effort

48
Name the Seven Dwarves
Take out a piece of paper
49
Retrieval
50
Retrieval

• The process of getting information out of memory
  storage
• Two forms of retrieval
• Recall
• Recognition

51
Recall

• A measure of memory in which the person must
  retrieve information learned earlier
• Example Essay, fill-in-the-blank, and short
  answer test questions test recall
• Recall Tests will do THIS to your head.

52
Recognition

• A measure of memory in which a person must
  identify items learned earlier
• Example Multiple choice and matching test
  questions test recognition

53
Now pick out the seven dwarves.
Turn your paper over.
Grouchy Gabby Fearful Sleepy
Smiley Jumpy Hopeful Shy Droopy
Dopey Sniffy Wishful Puffy Dumpy
Sneezy Pop Grumpy Bashful
Cheerful Teach Snorty Nifty Happy
Doc Wheezy Stubby Poopy
54
Seven Dwarves
Sleepy, Dopey, Grumpy, Sneezy, Happy, Doc and
Bashful
55
Retrieval Context
56
Context Effect

• The enhanced ability to retrieve information when
  you are in an environment similar to the one in
  which you encoded the information

57
Context
58
RetrievalState Dependency
59
State Dependent Memory

• The enhanced ability to retrieve information when
  the person is in the same physical and emotional
  state they were in when they encoded the
  information
• The retrieval state is congruent with the
  encoding state

60
Lets Review

• The Three Processes of Memory

61
Encoding

• The processing of information into the memory
  system.

Typing info into a computer
Getting a girls name at a party
62
Storage

• The retention of encoded material over time.

Trying to remember her name when you leave the
party.
Pressing Ctrl S and saving the info.
63
Retrieval

• The process of getting the information out of
  memory storage.

Seeing her the next day and calling her the wrong
name (retrieval failure).
Finding your document and opening it up.
64
Memory Construction- itinerary

• Misinformation Effect
• Childrens Memories
• Hypnosis (in general), drugs, therapy
• Traumatic events
• Rosanne Barr
• Eyewitness Testimony
• Picking Cotton
• Environmental Contexts Internal Emotional States
• Déjà vu
• Types of Amnesia
• Ten Second Tom

65
Misinformation effect

• Misinformation effect- when after exposure to
  subtle misinformation, many people misremember.
• Memories We construct our memories, using both
  stored and new information.
• are not stored as exact copies,
• In many experiments, people have witnessed an
  event, received or not received misleading
  information about it, and then taken a memory
  test.

66
Misinformation effect

• Consider two witnesses to a car accident. (Billy
  and Sally).
• Billy is asked by a policeman, How fast was the
  car going when it smashed into the other vehicle
  
• Sally is asked by another policeman, How fast
  was the car going when it bumped into the other
  vehicle.
• Billys constructed memory will increase in
  numbers in comparison from Sallys. Influenced by
  the descriptive words smashed and bumped.

67
Misinformation effect

• Misinformation effect can be caused by
• Leading questions
• Influence of people filling in gaps in memory
• Other testimony
• Repeated imagining and rehearsing nonexistent
  events cause false memories (imagination
  inflation).
• Source Amnesia- attribute to the wrong source an
  event the we have experienced, heard about, read
  about, or imagined. (Ex. Dreaming an event and
  trying to determine if it happened or it was a
  dream)

68
Psychologists Questions on Misinformation Effect

• When are people susceptible to misinformation?
• Time (discrepancy detection principle)
• Subtle exposure
• Who is susceptible to misinformation?
• Young children
• Memory performance rises up to the age of 20
• Falls sharply at the age of 65
• What happens to the original memory?
• a. After much research it is commonly believed
  that misinformation does impair the original
  details of memory.
• Do people genuinely believe the misinformation?
• a. It is believed that people report
  misinformation confidently because they have the
  need to be good at recalling events.

69
Childrens Memories

• Preschool Children are sensitive to suggestion,
  and their recollections of sexual abuse may be
  prone to error. (can be given suggestive
  interviewing techniques)
• Day Care Cases in 1980s- mass abuse. Falsely
  reported by children who were influenced by the
  interviewers.
• Innocent people have been falsely convicted of
  abuse that never happened, and true abusers have
  sued the controversy over recovered memories to
  avoid punishment.

70
Repressed and Recovered Memories

• Psychologists agree that
• Abuse happens and can leave lasting scars
• Some innocent people have been falsely convicted
  of abuse that never happened and some true
  abusers have used the controversy over recovered
  memories to avoid punishment
• Forgetting isolated good and bad memories
  triggered by some memory cue is commonplace
• Infantile amnesia-inability to recall memories
  from the first three years of life makes recovery
  of very early childhood memories very unlikely.
• Both real and false memories cause stress and
  suffering.

71
Hypnosis and Traumatic experiences

• Memories recovered under hypnosis or drugs or
  therapy are especially unreliable. Especially for
  children as are memories of things happening
  before age 3. (infantile amnesia)
• Traumatic experiences are usually vividly
  remembered, not banished into an active but
  inaccessible unconscious.

72
(No Transcript)
73
Eyewitness Memory

• Now turn over the True False 8-9 sheet on
  Eyewitness Memory sheet and complete it. On
  statement 9, 28 experts indicated that the
  reverse is probably true.
• All the statements on the handout except
  statement 9 as true.

74
(No Transcript)
75
Environmental contexts and internal emotional
states on retrieval.

• State Dependent Memories- tendency to recall
  information best in the same emotional state
  (mood) as when the information was learned.
• Context Dependent Memories- being in a context
  similar to one weve been in before may trick us
  into subconsciously
• retrieving an earlier experience.

76
What is déjà vu?

• The term deja vu is French and means, literally,
  "already seen." Those who have experienced the
  feeling describe it as an overwhelming sense of
  familiarity with something that shouldn't be
  familiar at all.
• Younger people experience Deja vu more
  frequently, then the elder.
• Deja vu has been firmly associated with
  temporal-lobe epilepsy. It can occur just prior
  to a temporal-lobe seizure. People suffering a
  seizure of this kind can experience deja vu
  during the actual seizure activity or in the
  moments between convulsions.
• It could be simple fantasy or wish fulfillment,
  while some psychiatrists ascribe it to a
  mismatching in the brain that causes the brain to
  mistake the present for the past.

77
Types of Amnesia (memory loss)

• Infantile Amnesia- inability of adults to
  remember the earliest years of their childhood.
  The amnesia generally covers events from birth
  until around three years old.
• Retrograde Amnesia -someone will be unable to
  recall events that occurred before the
  development of amnesia
• Anterograde Amnesia - loss of the ability to
  create memories after the event that caused the
  amnesia occurs. (Such as Ten Second Tom)

78
(No Transcript)