The Age of Reason

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The Age of Reason
We begin our discussion with .
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The Scientific Revolution

• The 17th Century and the
• The Age of Genius

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Why Study History of Science?

• Because it is a pure form of thought
• Because it affected philosophy, literature, and
  the arts
• Because it changed the ideas of religion and
  mans relationship to the concept of God
• Because it was the basis for the development of
  democratic societies.

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Overview

• No specific starting date
• Could be linked to Leonardo da Vinci the Middle
  Ages was focused on alchemy
• Rediscovery of Aristotle
• Influence of the Byzantine and Muslim worlds
  (chemistry)

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Rejection of Aristotle

• His scientific views of the universe were
  questioned.
• His observations were limited by the equipment of
  his day, but at least he based his conclusions on
  observation.
• Still wrong.
• Believed that the earth was the center of the
  universe.

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Copernicus, 1473-1543

• Polish clergyman and astronomer
• He concludes that the sun was the center of the
  universe
• Therefore G(g)od must reside in the sun

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You Stand Here
Copernicuss Observatory
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Tycho Brahe, 1546-1601

• Brilliant mathematician
• Believed Copernicus wrong. Argued that earth was
  center of the universe.
• But, his efforts proved the truth of Copernicus
  theory of the universe
• Unfortunately, his personal life interfered with
  his professional recognition

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Johannes Kepler, 1571-1630

• Brahes assistant
• Finished Brahes theory of the ellipse
• Developed laws of planetary motion
• But, training as a minister led Kepler to believe
  God must reside in the Sun.

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Keplers System
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Galileo Galilei, 1564-1642

• Follows Keplers view of the Universe
• Improved the telescope and discovered Jupiters
  planets
• Author of Starry Messenger
• Concludes that our solar system was part of a
  larger system
• Church condemned him
• Permanent house arrest

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Galileo - 2

• Also concluded that the moon was NOT luminous but
  made of earth-like substances (challenges
  conventional wisdom)
• But, greatest achievement was elaboration of the
  experimental method/physics based on precise
  measurements rather than metaphysical or logical
  principles
• Formulated LAW OF INERTIA determined that rest
  is NOT the natural state of objects the
  dropping of weights of ten and one pound from the
  Tower of Pisa (strike ground at the same time)

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Experimental Method

• The study of cause and effect
• Involves the deliberate manipulation of one
  variable, while trying to keep all other
  variables constant
• Experiments can be replicated
• Experiment yields quantitative data (numerical
  amounts of something)
• Diminishes likelihood of chance being the reason
  for the result of an experiment

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Empiricism

• Asserts that knowledge comes from experience (How
  do we know things?)
• Branch of Epistemology (a branch of philosophy
  devoted to the theory of knowledge)
• In science (as a method) it is argued that all
  evidence must be observable by the senses (tabula
  rasa)
• Linked to rationalism a philosophical study
  supported by John Locke, Thomas Hobbes, and David
  Hume

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Francis Bacon The Man1561-1626

• Lawyer and member of House of Commons
• Distrusted by Elizabeth but a favorite of James I
• Becomes one of most powerful politicians
• 1620, Publishes Novum Organum
• Bribery charge ends career. Dies in 1626 bad
  chicken.

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Bacon - The Thinker

• Represents first real departure from 16th Century
  thought.
• Preferred inductive reasoning to Aristotelian
  deductive reasoning supported experimentation.
• Argued that the function of science was the
  betterment of human society.
• And, that science should be applied to real
  situations rather just be a series of abstract
  ideas.

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Bacon The Dead

• Believed that snow (cold) could preserve meat
  (practical application of scientific thought)
• Purchased chicken (stuffed it with snow)
  contracted pneumonia
• Ate the chicken as a means of restoring his
  health (may have poisoned himself)
• Died . Experiment is said to have killed him

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The Scientific Method(as credited to Bacon)

• Observe the Universe
• Develop an hypothesis that is consistent with
  observation.
• Use the hypothesis to set a prediction
• Test the predictions with experiments or further
  observations, and modify hypothesis.
• Repeat last two steps until consistency is
  achieved between hypothesis and predictions

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Deductive Reasoning
From General to Specific

• All men are mortal
• Socrates is a man
• Therefore, Socrates is mortal

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Inductive Reasoning
From Specific to General
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Blaise Pascal

• French mathematician, physicist, religious
  thinker
• Applied science (mechanical calculator), fluids,
  pressure, vacuum
• Founder of Probability Theory - influences study
  of economics
• Also, develops Projection Geometry formalized
  perspective for artists
• Jansenism (the very conservative Catholic sect)

1623-1662
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Pascals Triangle provides a visual explanation
of binomial coefficients critical to
developing probability
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Renee Descartes, 1596-1650

• Poor of health, but brilliant
• Linked to math and philosophy
• Lawyer/soldier/teacher
• Used deductive method to explain math
• Developed Analytical Geometry
• Fascinated by optics
• Died of pneumonia from drafty room while tutoring
  royalty.

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Descartes The PhilosopherCartesian DualismI
think, therefore I am

• Thinking proved existence, but nothing was true
  until it was proven true
• Descartes believed that there two distinctive
  elements, mind and matter.
• There is confusion over how the mind and matter
  are to interact.
• Descartes ultimately believes that God will
  provide the answer.

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But Descartes is ultimately proven wrong

• Descartes metaphysical arguments are wrong
• However, he introduces mechanical or mathematical
  interpretations for phenomena, that allows
  scientists to move away from the reliance on
  spiritual interpretations of the past.

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Descartes Link to the The Enlightenment

• All people can reason
• Special training is not necessary for reasoning.
• Argues for egalitarian society (basis of
  Enlightenment)

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The Physical Sciences
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Robert Hooke, 1635-1703The Microscope
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Hooke

• English natural philosopher/architect/surveyor
• Father of Microscopy and coined the term cell
  to describe a basic unit of life
• Argued with Newton (Newton, as president of the
  Royal Society attempted to discredit Hooke)
• Credited with law of elasticity that permitted
  the development of the first portable timepiece
  (watch)
• Worked with Christopher Wren (great architect)

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Carl Linne 1707-1778
Classification of Species
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Chemistry
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Founders of European Chemistry
Henry Cavendish Hydrogen
Joseph PriestlyOxygen
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Robert Boyle

• Father of Modern Chemistry
• First to do controlled experiments with a
  research group and to publish results.
• Helped found the Royal Society. (Refused the
  presidency of the group because the oath violated
  his religious beliefs)
• Created the vacuum pump
• Credited with Boyles Law (deals with the
  pressure of gas in a closed system)
• First to use term chemical analysis

14th child of Britain's wealthiest
individual 1627-1691
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Mechanical Developments

• Denis Papin - the steam digester (forerunner to
  the steam engine)
• Abraham Darby I development of coke (critical
  to production of high-grade iron in a blast
  furnace)
• Otto von Guericke (1672) first generated
  electricity using a machine and Stephen Gray
  (1729) transmitted electricity

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However,Descartes prepares thescientific
community for Isaac Newton
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Isaac Newton, 1642 - 1727

• One of the foremost intellects of all time
• Major work was Principia
• Served in government
• Father of Calculus
• Determined the nature of gravity. Determined the
  force necessary to keep the moon in orbit.
• Never determined the cause of gravity.

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Royal Society for the ImprovementofNatural
Knowledge
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British Royal Academy

• Founded in 1660 (Charles II) first of its kind
  in Western world
• Funded by British government
• Fellows of the Royal Society are awarded as an
  honor for life
• Dedicated to the free flow of information and
  communication in the sciences.

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BiologyandMedicine
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WilliamHarvey

• English physician trained in Italy
• Personal physician to James I and Charles I
• Earlier models suggested that veins were not
  connected
• First described the circulation system and the
  heart as a pump
• Did not affect medical practice blood letting
  was still common procedure

1578-1657
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Andreas Vesalius

• Belgian (Flemish), studied in Paris
• Father of Surgery
• Author of early book on human anatomy
  accomplished by dissection
• Considered a great teacher (brought students
  close to the table)
• Leader in treatment of battlefield wounds
• Moved medicine into modern era

1514-1564
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A Medical Timeline

• 1667 First blood transfusion (lamb to boy, a
  gentle lamb to quiet a disturbed youth) A 1490s
  effort to save the life of Pope Innocent VIII was
  unsuccessful.
• 1682 Bacteria discovered
• 1714 First fine point syringe
• 1717 First inoculation against smallpox(1796
  Edward Jenner is successful)
• 1728 Dentistry is recognized as a profession

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Church Opposition Sees a threat to belief
systems(new religions and encouragement to
question tradition)
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Diesm

• Observation of the natural world and reason
  determine that the universe was created by a
  supreme being
• No need for organized religion or religious
  authority
• Rejects prophecy and miracles
• Rejects concept of divine intervention in human
  affairs establishes the Watchmaker theory of
  religion (Boyle and Descartes)
• Gains wide popularity during the Enlightenment

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Skepticism

• Philosophical examine knowledge and perceptions
  to determine truth
• Religious/Scientific examine extraordinary
  claims and seek to disprove them using scientific
  method
• Empiricism knowledge arises from experience
• Link to Enlightenment .

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Consequencesof Scientific Study

• Creation of an international scientific
  community scholars could engage in discourse
  about theories and ideas, thus expanding
  knowledge.
• The modern scientific method
• Applied science
• Major impact on how people think and believe
• Organization of knowledge in every aspect of
  existence

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and .A Link To The Enlightenment

• Belief that humans have the potential for
  progress
• That science can help make sense of the world
• That laws of human society could be understood
  through the use of the scientific methods
• That real reform of society can only occur
  through the acquisition of knowledge, and
• That human institutions can be perfected through
  reason