The Tactics of Psychological Research

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Chapter 2AP Psychology Outline

• The Tactics of Psychological Research

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I. Observing and Describing Behavior

• A. Empirical knowledge and the scientific method
• 1. Systematic Observation (Operationally Define
  all Behaviors )
• 2. Search for Regularities or Patterns of
  Behavior
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• 3. Form a Hypothesis (Make a Prediction)
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• 4. Evaluate the Hypothesis Based Upon Data and
  Observations
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• 5. Confirm Hypothesis or Refine Hypothesis for
  Further Research

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B. Descriptive Research Tactics and methods
underlying the direct observation and description
of behavior 1. Reactivity Occurs when behavior
changes as a result of observing it. Reactivity
threatens external validity or generalizability
to real life situations. C. Naturalistic
Observation Observing human behavior in its
natural setting (Ex. Observing children playing
on a playground) or ethologists studying the
behavior of animals in the wild. 1. Participant
observation The observer becomes a part of what
they are studying or observing
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D. Case Studies Focus on a single case to get
detailed information about a specific issue (Ex.
Sybil) E. Survey Research Used to get a broad
sample of reported behavior using responses from
many people. Surveys must get a representative
sample of the population being studied to be
accurate (Ex. Nielsen Poll) 1. Problems with
surveys surveys are a good source of general
information, but not in-depth knowledge. Self
report bias is a problem (Ex. Teen Drug Use
Survey) F. Psychological Tests Used to assess
individual differences. Useful for prediction and
placement 1. Achievement Tests Measure the
level of competence or knowledge in some area(s)
(Ex. PSSA, CAT5) 2. Aptitude Tests Measure or
predict potential for success in a profession or
area of study (Ex. SAT)
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G. Statistics Summarizing and Interpreting
Data 1. Central Tendencies Statistical values
around which scores tend to cluster a.
Mean the arithmetic average of a set of
scores b. Mode the most frequent score
in a data set c. Median the middle
score in a data set 2. Variability gives an
idea of how much scores in a data set differ from
one another a. Range the difference
between the lowest score and the highest score
b. Standard Deviation (variability) a
measure of how much individual scores differ from
the mean 3. Descriptive Statistics Area of
statistics that includes measures of central
tendencies and variability 4. Inferential
Statistics Area of statistics based on the laws
of probability. Used to determine whether data is
representative of a larger population and/or
Statistically Significant (Beyond the
likelihood of chance i.e. lt 5 chance)
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• II. Correlational Research
• Predicting Behavior Correlational research is
  used to show relationships between data and
  predict future performance
• Correlations statistics that indicate whether 2
  variables are related or vary together in a
  systematic way 1. Positive Correlation shows
  mathematically that 2 measures vary together in
  the same direction ?? or ??(Ex. In a daycare
  Number of diapers changed Number of times staff
  wash their hands ?. 75 )
• 2. Negative Correlation shows mathematically
  that 2 measures vary together in opposite
  directions ??(Ex. Practicing the piano
  Number of hours practicing Number of errors
  made playing piano in a performance -.75)

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• 3. Correlation coefficients Range from
• 1.00 (100 positive relationship) to
• 1.00 (100 Negative or Inverse relationship)
• The higher the number (absolute value), the
  stronger the relationship
• A 0 correlation uncorrelated or no
  relationship exists
• 1.00 ---------------------------------------- 0
  -------------------------------------------
  1.00C. Causality Correlations do not
  indicate causality or why behaviors occur.
• Only experimental research can demonstrate cause
  - effect relationships.

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III. Experimental Research A. Variables
something that can take on more than one
value 1. Independent Variable the aspect of
the environment that that the experimenter
manipulates (Ex. Whether a medication is
administered or not) 2. Dependent Variable
the behavior that is being measured in the
experiment (Ex. Observable compulsive checking
behavior) B. Experimental Control the
experimenter must make sure that only the
independent variable is being tested and that no
confounding (uncontrolled) variables exist that
might affect the outcome of the experiment. 1.
Experimental group (or Experimental setting)
the group that gets the treatment in an
experiment 2. Control group (or Control
setting) the group that does not get treatment or
receives a placebo 3. Internal validity means
that all variables are effectively controlled and
only the independent variable is being
tested 4. Random assignment assures that each
participant in an experiment has an equal chance
of being selected for the control group or the
experimental group. Also makes sure that the
control group and the experimental group are
similar
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C. Expectancies and Bias Experimenters and
participants may have expectations regarding the
roles or outcomes of an experiment. Experimenters
may use deception to avoid expectancy
bias. 1. Placebo an inactive or inert
substance that resembles an experimental
substance to deceive an experiments participants
(Ex. A pill that resembles a medication, but
contains no medication) 2. Single-blind
studies ones in which the subjects
(participants) in an experiment do not know if
they are in the experimental group or the control
group 3. Double-blind studies ones in which
neither the subjects (participants) nor the
experimenters know which group is receiving
treatment until the experiment is concluded
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• IV. Treating Research Participants Ethically
  Human and Animal Studies
• A. Ethical Questions
• 1. Is it appropriate to deceive the subjects in
  an experiment by using a placebo or not
  explaining the true nature of an experiment?
• 2. Is it appropriate to withhold treatment from
  some subjects in an experiment (the control
  group) to reduce expectancy bias?
• B. APA Guidelines the American Psychological
  Association has developed ethical guidelines and
  codes of conduct for experimentation
• 1. Informed Consent Participants in research
  must be informed of all the factors affecting
  participation in an experimental study and
  consent must be in writing.
• 2. Debriefing Subjects in an experimental
  study must be told of the general purposes of the
  research and of any deception used after the
  conclusion of the experiment.
• 3. Confidentiality - The participants right to
  privacy must be protected and personal
  information may not be revealed without the
  participants permission.
• C. The Ethics of Animal research
• Animals are used in less than 10 of all
  psychological studies
• Animals are used because it allows more
  experimental control
• The APA has strict guidelines governing animal
  care in research
• Justifiable use of animals in research is
  controversial.