Elements of Argument Including Fallacious Reasoning

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Elements of ArgumentIncluding Fallacious
Reasoning

• Hey, Guys!
• Follow me everyones goingCome On I say, Follow
  Me!

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Persuasive text attempts to convince or influence
readers!

• To persuade means to try to influence or
  convince.
• In persuasive writing, the author attempts to
  influence readers of something.
• Persuasion is when the author expresses an
  opinion and supports it with details that are
  meant to convince the reader.

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Persuasive Texts Central Argument

• The central argument is the main opinion that is
  developed.
• The intention of the argument is to convince the
  reader to act or believe according to the
  judgment or feeling of another person/group.

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Ever had an argument? What was your central
argument?
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Types of Appeals we can appeal to people 3 ways

• Ethos (Ethics)
• Make the audience to decide right or wrong about
  what is being presented.
• Pathos (Emotion)
• Make the audience feel something about the topic
• (e.g. children, animals, illness, memories)
• Logos (Logic)
• Make the audience think about what is presented
• (e.g. statistics, facts, authority)

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Persuasive Text

• Persuasive texts are less effective is they
  contain unsupported inferences.
• An inference is a generalization, conclusion, or
  reasoned judgment based on evidence or on
  information presented.
• An unsupported inference is a claim,
  generalization, or idea that is not supported by
  details in the passage or text.

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Persuasive Text - Fallacies

• Persuasive texts are also less effective if they
  contain fallacious reasoning fallacious means
  faulty or false.
• So, fallacious reasoning is a method of
  presenting information that deceives or confuses
  the reader.

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Types of Logical Fallacies

1. Circular Reasoning (Begging the Question)
2. False Causality
3. Hasty Generalizations
4. Either/Or
5. Oversimplification
6. False Analogy
7. Name Calling
8. Sweeping Generalization
9. Red Herring (Irrelevant Conclusion)

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Circular Reasoning (a.k.a. Begging the Question)

• Circular reasoning is an element of argument used
  to prove another element of the same argument.
• It may seem that the author is supporting the
  argument, when in fact it is not being supported
  by outside detail, but by the argument itself.
• Look for the conclusion within the premise of the
  argument.
• Example
• In a democracy the people are free because
  democracies are free countries.

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False Causality

• A cause and effect argument with a false cause.
• Example
• Every time I forget my umbrella, it rains.
  Therefore, I cause the rain by leaving my
  umbrella at home, and guarantee a nice day by
  bringing my umbrella.
• Forgetting my umbrella rain

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Hasty Generalizations

• A hasty generalization presents a general rule
  based on a too few or atypical examples.
• Examples
• I saw 12 boys wearing Vans at the homecoming
  dance Saturday night so all boys must wear Vans.
• Stereotype is similar, but based on gender,
  ethnicity, race, political, social, professional,
  or religious group.

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Either/Or

• Simply implies that there are only two
  alternatives.
• Example
• Would you rather have a senator who is handsome
  and dumb or one who is ugly and intelligent?
• You are either for or against the law. Decide!

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Over Simplification

• The authors argument attempts to suggest that a
  complex issue is uncomplicated.
• Example
• I am so tired of hearing about illegal
  immigration. Just seal the borders.

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False Analogy

• An incorrect analogical connection between two
  unconnected items thus comparing two things that
  are not logical.
• An argument based on misleading, superficial, or
  implausible comparisons.
•  
• Example
• You passed everyone else in the class so I should
  receive credit like my fellow classmates.
• If pizza and French fries are fattening and make
  me gain weight, I will never eat in the school
  cafeteria.

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Name Calling

• An attempt to discredit an opponent by labeling
  or describing him with words that have
  emotionally loaded terms or unfavorable
  connotations to influence.
• Example
• Senator Jones just divorced his wife. How can his
  proposal be any good?

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Sweeping Generalization

• The author applies a rule thats generally true
  to all cases, ignoring the exceptions to that
  rule to prove their point.
• The reverse of a hasty generalization.
• Look for clue words like all, always, never,
  every, anything, no one, and none. But be
  careful! A hasty generalization can use these
  words too!
• Examples
• All birds can fly.
• But mom, everyone failed the test.
• No one cares that there is not enough parking
  downtown.

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Red Herring (Irrelevant Conclusion)

• Is when someone argues for, and often proves, an
  irrelevant point a point that is not the point
  of the original assertion. He dresses up his
  irrelevant conclusion to look as if it was
  relevant.
• Examples
• Grizzly bears cant be dangerous because they
  look so cute.

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Lets Play the Fallacy Game

• A fallacy will be presented.
• Use your notes to identify which logical fallacy
  is being used
• Write your
• answers on your
• notes.

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1. What Fallacy?

• Learning to swim is easy because its not a
  difficult sport to learn.

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2. What Fallacy?

• We can either burn the house down and collect
  the insurance money or we can continue living in
  an unsafe house. Since we shouldnt keep living
  in an unsafe house, we should burn it down.

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3. What Fallacy?

• I have a right to say what I want, therefore you
  shouldnt try to silence me.

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4. What Fallacy?

• "My roommate said her philosophy class was hard,
  and the one I'm in is hard, too. All philosophy
  classes must be hard!"

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5. What Fallacy?

• "President Jones raised taxes, and then the rate
  of violent crime went up. Jones is responsible
  for the rise in crime."

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6. What Fallacy?

• We can either go to the river or eat sandwiches.
  Were both hungry, so we should eat sandwiches
  and not go to the river.

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7. What Fallacy?

• "Guns are like hammersthey're both tools with
  metal parts that could be used to kill someone.
  And yet it would be ridiculous to restrict the
  purchase of hammersso restrictions on purchasing
  guns are equally ridiculous."

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8. What Fallacy?

• "Active euthanasia is morally acceptable. It is a
  decent, ethical thing to help another human being
  escape suffering through death."

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9. What Fallacy?

• It is claimed by some people that severe illness
  is caused by depression and anger. After all,
  people who are severely ill are very often
  depressed and angry. Thus, it follows that the
  cause of severe illness actually is the
  depression and anger. So, a good and cheerful
  attitude is key to staying healthy.

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10. What Fallacy?

• Youll definitely get into an Ivy League school
  if youre class valedictorian. Last years class
  valedictorian applied to Stanford and was
  accepted this years valedictorian just found
  out she got into Harvard.

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11. What Fallacy?

• Caldwell Hall is in bad shape. Either we tear it
  down and put up a new building, or we continue to
  risk students' safety. Obviously we shouldn't
  risk anyone's safety, so we must tear the
  building down.

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12. What Fallacy?

• All Americans are patriotic.

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The Final Answer ?

1. Circular Reasoning
2. Either/or
3. Circular Reasoning
4. Sweeping Generalization
5. False Causality
6. Either/Or
7. False Analogy
8. Circular Reasoning
9. False Causality
10. Hasty Generalization
11. Either/Or
12. Sweeping Generalization