Objective 3.2

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Objective 3.2

• Discuss considerations involved in setting up and
  carrying out an observation

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Observations

• Much in depth qualitative research is
  observational in part. The reporting of such
  research is often inadequate, which hampers the
  assessment of its strengths and limitations and
  of a study's generalizability.
• Bailey (1987) developed recommendations on what
  should be included in an accurate and complete
  report of an observational study. This is what we
  will use to answer this objective

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Observations

• There are various considerations available to an
  observation researcher in undertaking research.
• Many of these considerations pertain to the way
  the researcher is to observe the phenomena of
  interest and are contingent upon various factors,
  including the purpose of the research, the
  setting in which the research will take place,
  the resources available and the nature of the
  study.

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The Observation Research Process

• All observation research exercises tend to follow
  a common pattern of activities. This process has
  a number of distinct stages. The following is a
  nine-step approach in conducting an observational
  study.

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The Observation Research Process

• Step 1- Determine Observation Research
  Objectives.
• What the researcher wants to observe and the
  purpose of the observation is listed in the form
  of research objectives.
• The researcher must formulate what is to be
  achieved by conducting the observation research.
  In broad terms, the main objective of the study
  should be to understand and describe the
  phenomena of interest as completely as possible,
  although each observer may have more specific
  sub-objectives.

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The Observation Research Process

• Step 2-Selection of Research Subjects.
• The people to be observed must be decided. The
  research subjects selected must be done so as to
  achieve the research objectives. Why is this
  important?

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The Observation Research Process

• Step 3- Decide Field Role.
• Prior to entering the field, the observation
  researcher must decide which field role he/she is
• going to adopt.
• The options available are overt participant,
  covert participant, observer-as-participant or
  overt non-participant, covert non-participant.
• The field role selected will be contingent upon
  the purpose of the research, time allocated for
  the research, organizational access and ethical
  approval.

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The Observation Research Process

• Step 4-Gain Entry to the Research Field.
• Observation researchers recognize the fundamental
  need to go where participants
• spend time.
• Most research fields (unless it is a public
  place) cannot be observed by anyone, at any time.
  Entry must be gained to the research field.
• In organizations, there are individuals who, by
  virtue of their office, have the authority to act
  as gatekeepers.
• They can grant or withhold formal permission to
  enter and participate in the life of the
  organization.

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The Observation Research Process

• Step 4-Gain Entry to the Research Field.
• Hence, researchers must negotiate permission for
  entry through such gatekeepers.
• The researcher must determine a strategy whereby,
  he/she will be granted entry to the field to be
  studied.
• Dealing with such gatekeepers is therefore an
  extremely important part of gaining entry to the
  research field, but at the same time several
  hurdles stand in the way

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The Observation Research Process

• Step 5- Build Rapport with the Subjects being
  Studied.
• Achieving rapport is an important prerequisite in
  participant observation research.
• Building rapport entails the development of
  reciprocal relationships and mutual trust between
  observer and subjects.
• Why is it important to build a rapport with
  participants?

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The Observation Research Process

• Step 5- Build Rapport with the Subjects being
  Studied.
• It is only when research subjects treat the
  observer as a friend and confidant, rather than a
  researcher that they will reveal their innermost
  feelings and make their most intimate and
  unbiased statements.
• It can be the most difficult and time-consuming
  task in observation research, but is impetrative
  if valid data is to be obtained.

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The Observation Research Process

• Step 6 - Observing and Recording.
• The researcher begins observing the phenomena of
  interest and recording findings. Methods of
  recording (diary, post-observational notes,
  recorders, etc.) must be determined in this step.
  
• More specifically, field notes recorded should
  have five components "a running description of
  events, previously forgotten happenings that are
  now recalled, analytical ideas and inferences,
  personal impressions and feelings, and notes for
  further information" (Source pg 250.)

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The Observation Research Process

• Step 7 - Exit from the Observational Study.
• Once sufficient information is gathered, the
  researcher must exit from the field.
• In instances where the researchers role is overt,
  the subjects must be thanked for their
  participation and contribution.
• If on the other hand, the researchers role has
  been concealed throughout the observation
  process, the researcher must exit the field
  without drawing attention to oneself.

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The Observation Research Process

• Step 8 - Data Analysis.
• The chief task of data analysis in observation
  research consists of summarizing the field notes
  by means of taxonomies.
• Once the data has been summarized, it must be
  interpreted in the context of which the phenomena
  took place, to draw meaningful conclusions about
  behavior.
• In analyzing the data, the researcher must
  develop a framework of theory that will help
  him/her understand and explain to others, what is
  going on in the research setting under study.

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The Observation Research Process

• Step 8 - Data Analysis.
• There are no initial checklists for data
  analysis, simply observation of events,
  situations and behaviors, which are then written
  up and gradually, as more data accumulates,
  tentative guiding hypothesis, categorization,
  conceptual frameworks and some theoretical
  underpinning conjoin to give body, focus and
  direction to the data collected.

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The Observation Research Process

• Step 9 - Presentation of Findings.
• Once conclusions have been arrived at through
  analysis, the researcher must compile a
• report presenting the findings. This is done in a
  similar manner as interviews.

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Training for the observations

• The Skill Balancing Act
• Observation skills do not get sharpened up in
  real life the way most other skills do.
• Researchers need to train themselves to see,
  learn, and think when watching people. This takes
  tremendous amounts of practice and discipline.
• In order, to meet the challenges posed by
  observation research a researcher embarking on an
  observation research project must develop the
  following skill profile. How could training as an
  observer change a covert/overt observation? A
  participant/non-participant observation?

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Training for the observations

• Conflict Management.
• Observation researchers face the probability of
  encountering conflicts with research subjects, if
  their status as a researcher is revealed during a
  covert observation research project.
• Such conflicts if not handled appropriately, can
  be detrimental to the research project as it can
  de-motivate subjects and prevent them from
  extending their cooperation.
• When such conflicts arise, researchers must be
  equipped with appropriate conflict management
  skills to cope.

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Training for the observations

• Conflict Management.
• Observation researchers face the probability of
  encountering conflicts with research subjects, if
  their status as a researcher is revealed during a
  covert observation research project.
• Such conflicts if not handled appropriately, can
  be detrimental to the research project as it can
  de-motivate subjects and prevent them from
  extending their cooperation.
• When such conflicts arise, researchers must be
  equipped with appropriate conflict management
  skills to cope.

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Training for the observations

• Listening Skills.
• Since some observational research does not entail
  questioning and speaking to respondents,
  researchers can collect information only through
  watching and listening.
• Listening to the conversations of research
  subjects in their natural setting can yield
  useful information, which sometimes cannot be
  gathered through formal probing and questioning.
• Hence, active listening skills must be developed
  to listen to research subjects and absorb what
  they are saying. This entails developing the
  ability to stay focused.

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Training for the observations

• Critical Thinking.
• Researchers must develop the ability to be
  objective and refrain from taking information at
  face value.
• Developing critical thinking skills is imperative
  in conducting observation research to eliminate
  value judgments and assumptions about behavior.
  What issues can rise from misinterpreting what
  you observe?
• Skills must be developed to evaluate situations,
  which occur in the observation field from
  different perspectives, eliminating the
  probability of misperception.