INTRODUCTION%20TO%20PSYCHOLOGY

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INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY

• MIDTERM REVIEW
• Chapters 1-6

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Chapter 1Foundations

• What is psychology?
• Psychology is the scientific study of our
  thoughts, feelings and behaviors
• What is an approach or perspective in
  psychology?
• An approach or perspective in psychology is a
  particular view as to why, and how, it is we
  think, feel, and behave as we do

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Chapter 1Foundations

• What is Behavioral Psychology?
• Behavioral Psychology is basically interested in
  how our behavior results from the stimuli both in
  the environment and within ourselves.
• Who are the most known Behavioral Psychologists?
• Pavlov, Thorndike, Skinner, Watson

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Chapter 1Foundations

• What is Biological Perspective?
• The biological approach believes us to be as a
  consequence of our genetics and physiology. It is
  the only approach in psychology that examines
  thoughts, feelings, and behaviors from a physical
  point of view.

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Chapter 1Foundations

• What is Evolutionary Psychology?
• Evolutionary psychology focus on how evolution
  has shaped the mind and behavior
• What is Developmental Psychology?
• Developmental psychology, also known as Human
  Development, is the scientific study of
  progressive psychological changes that occur in
  human beings as they age.

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Chapter 1Foundations

• What is Psychodynamic Approach?
• Sigmund Freud was the founder of the
  psychodynamic approach to psychology. This school
  of thought emphasized the influence of the
  unconscious mind on behavior.
• What is Cognitive Approach?
• Focus on our information processes of perception,
  attention, language, memory, and thinking, and
  how they influence our thoughts, feelings and
  behaviors.

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Chapter 1Scientific Research

• What is the aim of the psychological studies?
• The goals of psychological studies are to
  describe, explain, predict, and perhaps influence
  mental processes or behavior.
• What is a scientific research?
• The scientific method is a set of principles and
  procedures that are used by researchers to
  develop questions, collect data, and reach
  conclusions.

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Chapter 1Scientific Research

• How are research methods in psychology are
  divided?
• Research methods that are experimental in design
  include the laboratory, field and
  quasi-experiment. Non-experimental methods
  include the observational, survey, interview and
  case study methods.

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Chapter 1Scientific Research

• What is a naturalistic observation method?
• It means, observing behavior in their natural
  environment.

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Chapter 1Scientific Research

• What are the advantages and disadvantages of
  naturalistic observation method?
• Advantages
• high degree of realism because are in natural
  environments, data on large number of variables
  can be collected at the same time, researcher
  doesn't have as great an impact on the study as
  he/she may in other strategies
• Disadvantages
• variables not manipulated by the researcher,
  unable to infer causality, measurement of
  variables less precise than in laboratory

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Chapter 1Scientific Research

• What is a correlational study?
• Correlation means relationship, so the purpose of
  a correlational study is to determine if a
  relationship exists, what direction the
  relationship is, and how strong it is. It can not
  make any assumptions of cause and effect (no
  causation).

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Chapter 1Scientific Research

• What are the possible results of correlational
  study?
• There are three possible results of a
  correlational study
• a positive correlation Both variables increase
  or decrease at the same time (exmore eating more
  weight)
• a negative correlation Indicates that as the
  amount of one variable increases, the other
  decreases (and vice versa) (ex more smoking,
  less healthy)
• no correlation Indicates no relationship
  between the two variables.(ex more study,more
  tall you get)

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Chapter 1Scientific Research

• What are the advantages and disadvantages of
  correlational study?
• Advantages
• shows if two or more variables are related
• allows general predictions
• used both in natural and laboratory settings
• Disadvantages
• Does not permit identification of cause and
  effect

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Chapter 1Scientific Research

• What is an experimental study?
• In an experiment, a researcher manipulates or
  changes a particular variable under controlled
  conditions while observing resulting changes in
  another variable or variables.

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Chapter 1Scientific Research

• What is a dependant and independant variable?
• Independent Variable (IV) the variable that is
  manipulated by the experimenter (input
  variable)-effects the experimenter wishes to
  examine.
• Dependent Variable (DV) the outcome variable
  (results of the experiment)-experimenter wants to
  find out if this variable depends on some other
  factor.

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Chapter 1Scientific Research

• How many groups are there in experimental
  studies?
• The control group made up of individuals who are
  randomly assigned to a group but do not receive
  the treatment. The measures takes from the
  control group are then compared to those in the
  experimental group to determine if the treatment
  had an effect.
• The experimental group made up of individuals
  who are randomly assigned to the group and then
  receive the treatment. The scores of these
  participants are compared to those in the control
  group to determine if the treatment had an effect.

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Chapter 1Scientific Research

• How are the experimental studies carried out?
• The researcher manipulates the independent
  variable and observes the dependent variable. The
  dependent variable may be affected by changes in
  the independent variable. In other words, the
  dependent variable depends (or is thought to
  depend) on the independent variable.

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Chapter 1Scientific Research

• What are the advantages and disadvantages of
  experimental studies?
• Advantages
• allows researcher to control the situation
• Permits researcher to identify cause and effect
• Disadvantages
• situation is artificial and can not be always
  generalised to the real world
• sometimes difficult to avoid experimenter effects

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Chapter 2Evolution and the Biological Roots of
Behavior

• What is Darwins theory of evolution?
• Certain differences among individuals are
  adaptive. The individuals who possess the
  adaptive characteristics are more likely to
  survive and reproduce in the environment into
  which they are born. Some adaptive differences
  among individuals are inherited.

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Chapter 2Evolution and the Biological Roots of
Behavior

• What is Darwins theory of evolution? Contd...
• The environment does not contain enough
  resources to support all individuals.
• A struggle for existence occurs among
  individuals those who possess the most adaptive
  characteristics, by definition, win the struggle.
  
• Individuals who survive and reproduce pass on
  their adaptive characteristics to their
  offspring, who are more inclined to inherit these
  adaptive traits than the offspring of parents who
  do not possess them.

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Chapter 2Evolution and the Biological Roots of
Behavior

• What is a set point?
• a weight the body tries to maintain (the target)
• What are the Built-in systems (organs) for
  regulating food intake?
• Liver
• Hypothalamus
• Stomach and Duodenum
• Adipose Tissue

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Chapter 2Evolution and the Biological Roots of
Behavior

• Why are there so many organs for regulating food
  in take?
• Safety provided by backup systems
• If one system fails, the organism is still
  protected
• Different signals monitor different aspects of
  our nutritional needs
• Leptin-longer term needs
• Others (cues from stomach)-hour-by-hour energy
  requirement variations

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Chapter 2Evolution and the Biological Roots of
Behavior

• What are the parts of our nervous system,
  explain...
• Central Nervous System (CNS)
• The brain and spinal cord
• Peripheric Nervous System (PNS)
• System of nerves outside of the brain and spinal
  cord
• Send control to the glands and smooth muscles
• Controls internal organs, usually not under
  voluntary control

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Chapter 2Evolution and the Biological Roots of
Behavior

• What are the parts of autonomic nervous system?
  Explain...
• Sympathetic Triggered when body temperature is
  too low. Revives up body activity to prepare for
  rigorous activity. Increased heart rate, slowing
  down of peristalsis for not using energy during
  digestion Vasoconstriction (Contraction of skins
  capillaries)
• Parasympathetic Triggered when bodys
  temperature is too high. Restored bodys internal
  activities, Cardio slowing, speeds up
  peristalsis, vasolidation (Widening of skins
  capillaries)

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Chapter 2Evolution and the Biological Roots of
Behavior

• What kind of internal adjustments happen when we
  feel threathened?
• Sympathetic branch of ANS activated
• Prepares body for immediate, intense activity.
  Surge of adrenaline released

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Chapter 2Evolution and the Biological Roots of
Behavior

• What is the difference between male and female
  aggression?
• The male is the far more aggressive sex. This
  gender difference holds only for physical
  aggression. Testosterone (the male sex hormone)
  is associated with physical aggressiveness in
  many species. Males use physical aggression
  (pushing and punching). Females use social
  aggression (spreading gossip and rumors,
  isolating unwanted friends).

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Chapter 2Evolution and the Biological Roots of
Behavior

• What is territoriality?
• Acquisition and protection of resources, usually
  territory source of most aggression. Often
  expressed in humans as personal space
  preferences. Vary by culture much is learned

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Chapter 2Evolution and the Biological Roots of
Behavior

• How do we learn to be aggressive?
• Explicit learning someone demands or teaches us
• Implicit we observe
• Seems to be causal when we observe violence, we
  become violent

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Chapter 3The Brain and the Nervous System

• How is the nervous system studied?
• Clinical observation
• Observing the change in behavior after a brain
  damage
• Neuropsychology
• what happens to behavior when brain structures
  are damaged
• Experimental techniques
• Lesioning brain structures, observing
  consequences
• Transcranial magnetic stimulation temporary loss
  of brain function in isolated areas near surface
  of brain (just under scalp)

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Chapter 3The Brain and the Nervous System

• What are neuroimaging techniques used for?
• To examine structures and functioning of brain
• What are the types of neuroimaging techniques?
• CE, MRI, fMRI, EEG

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Chapter 3The Brain and the Nervous System

• What is a CT technique?
• Images created from multiple x-ray images of
  brain. It only shows structure.
• What are functional neuroimaging techniques?
• fMRI and EEG

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Chapter 3The Brain and the Nervous System

• What are the names and functions of lobes of the
  Cortex?
• Frontal Lobes receive and coordinate messages
  from other lobes as well as motor control, speech
  and higher functions
• Parietal Lobes receives information about
  pressure, pain, touch and temperature
• Temporal Lobes hearing, language comprehension,
  memory and some emotional control
• Occipital Lobes vision and visual perception

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Chapter 3The Brain and the Nervous System

• What is Corpus Collosum?
• The Cerebral Cortex is divided into two
  hemispheres (left and right) connected by the
  Corpus Collosum
• What are the functions of left and right brain
  (Lateralization)?
• Left Brain Language Functions (speaking,
  reading, writing, and understanding language),
  analytical Functions (mathematics, physical
  sciences), right-hand touch
• Right Brain Non-verbal abilities (music, art,
  perceptual and spatial manipulation, facial
  recognition), some language comprehension,
  left-hand touch

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Chapter 3The Brain and the Nervous System

• What is Brocas and Wernickes area?
• Brocas Area
• an area of the left frontal lobe that directs the
  muscle movements involved in speech (speech
  production)
• Wernickes Area
• an area of the left temporal lobe involved in
  language comprehension and expression (speech
  comprehension)

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Chapter 3The Brain and the Nervous System

• What is apraxia?
• inability to initiate or carry out learned
  complex (2 steps) motor action
• What is agnosia?
• inability to identify familiar objects (persons,
  sounds, shapes or smells) using the affected
  sense

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Chapter 3The Brain and the Nervous System

• What is brain plasticity?
• Plasticity means Subject to alteration.
  Historically, nervous system deemed NOT plastic.
  New evidenceshows that neurons can change, form
  new connections with other neurons, even can take
  the place of the damaged cells in the brain. As a
  result, the brain itself can entirely change.

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Chapter 5 Perception

• What are the dimensions on our retinal image?
• Width and height
• What makes us see objects as three-dimensional?
• Depth perception Ability to see
  three-dimensional space and to accurately judge
  distances

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Chapter 5 Perception

• What are the types of depth cues?
• Binocular (two eyes)
• Monocular(one eye)
• What is binocular disparity?
• We compare the retinal image in one eye to the
  retinal image in the other they differ each
  eye is a slightly different distance from an
  object in the world. The disparity between the
  views serves as a powerful cue for depth

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Chapter 5 Perception

• What are Monocular cues?
• Interposition When one object partly blocks your
  view of another, you perceive the partially
  blocked object as farther away
• Linear Perspective Parallel lines that are known
  to be the same distance apart appear to grow
  closer together, or converge, as they recede into
  the distance
• Texture Gradients The texture of objects tend to
  become smoother as the object gets farther away,
  suggesting that more detailed textured objects
  are closer. 
• Relative size Larger objects are perceived as
  being closer to the viewer, and smaller objects
  as being farther away
• Light and shadow the location of the shadow
• Motion parallax relative velocity of objects
  moving across the retina of a moving person

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Chapter 5 Perception

• What is size constancy?
• Refers to our ability to see objects as
  maintaining the same size even when our distance
  from them makes things appear larger or smaller. 
• What is shape constancy?
• Perceiving objects as having a stable or
  unchanging shape regardless of changes in the
  retinal image resulting from differences in
  viewing angle

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Chapter 5 Perception

• What is apparent motion?
• When intervals between images occur at correct
  timing (not too far apart in time) we perceive
  motion

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Chapter 5 Perception

• What is Gestalt Psychology?
• The German word "Gestalt" roughly means to
  "whole" or "form" . According to Gestalt
  psychologists, The whole is greater than the sum
  of its parts.  It means, in order to interpret
  what we receive through our senses, we attempt to
  organize this information into certain
  groups. Therefore, sense of shape is derived
  from the whole, not the sum of its parts

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Chapter 5 Perception

• What are Gestalt principles of organization?
• Issues of figure/ground we seem to have an
  innate tendency to pereive one aspect of an event
  as the figure or fore-ground and the other as the
  ground or back-ground.
• Similarity we will tend to group similar items
  together.
• Proximity Things that are close together as seen
  as belonging together
• Good continuation We tend to perceive things in
  good form
• Closure if something is missing in an otherwise
  complete figure, we will tend to add it
• subjective contours

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Chapter 5 Perception

• What does classical approach to perception tells
  about the role of the perceiver?
• In classical approach to perception emphasis is
  on the active, constructive role of the
  perceiver, who routinely
• Resolves ambiguous figures
• Determines identity of objects based on
  contextual clues and previous knowledge
• Determines identity of objects based on
  contextual clues

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Chapter 5 Perception

• How do illusions happen?
• Cues sometimes cause an over-estimate or
  under-estimate slight over/under interpretations
  can cause us to misinterpret the information we
  receive

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Chapter 6 Learning

• What is learning?
• Learning is a relatively permanent change in an
  organisms behavior due to past experience
• What is habituation?
• Decline of organisms response to stimulus once
  that stimulus becomes familiar simply getting
  used to... Organism does not learn anything new
  from that event

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Chapter 6 Learning

• What is classical conditoning?
• Organism comes to associate two stimuli a
  neutral one and one that already causes a
  reflexive response

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Chapter 6 Learning

• What is unconditioned stimulus and unconditioned
  response?
• Unconditioned Stimulus (US)
• stimulus that unconditionally--automatically and
  naturally--triggers a response
• Unconditioned Response (UR)
• unlearned, naturally occurring response to the
  unconditioned stimulus

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Chapter 6 Learning

• What is conditioned stimulus and conditioned
  response?
• Conditioned Stimulus (CS)
• originally irrelevant and neutral stimulus that,
  after association with an unconditioned stimulus,
  comes to trigger a conditioned response
• Conditioned Response (CR)
• learned response to a previously neutral
  conditioned stimulus

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Chapter 6 Learning

• In Pavlovs experiment what is US, UR, CS and CR?
• US food
• UR salivation
• CS bell
• CR salivation

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Chapter 6 Learning

• What is extinction?
• The dying out of a conditioned response.
  Conditioned Response will gradually disappear if
  the CS is repeteadly presented by itself without
  the Unconditioned Stimulus
• What is spontaneous recovery?
• Extinction does not work by erasing the
  original learning. The animal keeps some memories
  of the learning, therefore extinction can be
  undone

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Chapter 6 Learning

• What is generalization?
• CS that resemble each other (even if never paired
  with the US) can elicit the CR
• What is discrimination?
• Ability to make fine discriminations of what will
  and what wont elicit the CR

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Chapter 6 Learning

• What is the role of surprise in learning?
• Surprise plays a key role in conditioning.
  Learning occurs only when events are not in line
  with our expectations. Otherwise we dont need to
  learn anything new about the environment.

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Chapter 6 Learning

• What is instrumental conditioning?
• Many of our behaviors are voluntary, initiated
  and controlled by the organism itself. Subjects
  behavior determines an outcome and is
  subsequently impacted by that outcome

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Chapter 6 Learning

• What is the difference between classical
  conditioning plus habituation and instrumental
  conditioning?
• Neither habituation nor classical conditioning
  teaches the organism a new response.
• You just learn to associate an existing response
  (salivating) with a new stimulus (the bell) and
  create reflexes. Key difference from Classical
  Conditioning subjects behavior determines an
  outcome and is subsequently impacted by that
  outcome

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Chapter 6 Learning

• Who found Law of Effect, explain...
• Thorndikes principle that behaviors followed by
  favorable consequences become more likely, and
  behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences
  become less likely. In instrumental conditioning
  the animal or person must produce some behavior
  to get a reward or avoid a punishment. If a
  particular voluntary response is followed by a
  reward, that response will be strengthened (the
  response comes from within).

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Chapter 6 Learning

• What is a reinforcer and what are the types of
  reincorcer?
• Any event that strengthens the behavior it
  follows
• Positive its exisitence helps to create the
  desired behavior (food, drink etc)
• Negative its non-existence helps to create the
  desired behavior (loud noise, electric shock etc)

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Chapter 6 Learning

• What was Tolmans contribution to instrumental
  conditioning?
• Tolman demonstrated latent learning (Learning
  that occurs, but is not apparent until there is
  an incentive to demonstrate it) using an operant
  conditioning paradigm
• Rats explored a maze with no reward
• Later, under conditions of reward could
  demonstrate formation of a cognitive map
  (mental representation of the layout of ones
  environment)
• Indicated that learning had taken place, not
  mere conditioning

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Chapter 6 Learning

• What is learned helplessness? and how does it
  show itself in depression?
• Control over environment lessens
  stress/distress sense of futility, or lack of
  control, increases stress/distress. In
  depression, patient was once in a state where she
  was really helpless, and therefore, believes that
  there is no contingency between acts and
  outcomes, and so no point in trying.

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Chapter 6 Learning

• Make a brief comparison of classical conditioning
  and instrumental conditioning