Intellectual Change

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Ideas
Mark Knights
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Ideas and contexts

• Is political thought a very useful term?
• It tends to stress great thinkers and examine
  their ideas (Machiavelli, Hobbes, Locke). They
  are indeed part of the story but
• Ideas arent just the preserve of intellectuals
  but are inherent in everyday actions, conflicts
  and beliefs
• Ideas dont change in isolation from events and
  movements around them
• Moreover politics can be a very artificially
  restrictive word in an age when religion was so
  pervasive, politics has to be interpreted rather
  widely perhaps we really mean, thought related
  to the state and its competencies

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• Case study to show how the context creates the
  need for political thought how this process
  affects nearly everyone and hence that political
  theorists engage with common problems and how
  canonical figures are also appropriated to answer
  pressing needs

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The British Civil War
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The impact of war

• Loss of life larger percentage of population may
  have died than in First World War
• Deeply divisive being sent to Coventry
• Destruction of property

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What issues were raised?

• What are the legitimate powers of a monarch?
• Is it legitimate to raise force against a
  monarch?
• If yes, under what circumstances? And does this
  imply that political authority rests in the
  people?
• If no, what is the appropriate response? What
  authority might you be prepared to fight for?

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What issues were raised once the war had ended?

• What is the best way to reconstruct authority?
• 1649 declaration of a free state and
  commonwealth. Republican form of government
  but this requires justification and vindication.
• Does this free state mean social revolution? The
  redistribution of land?
• Does this free state mean the end of a national
  church and the beginnings of religious
  toleration?
• Does this free state mean the end of state
  controls over the press?

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Engagement

• "I do declare and promise, that I will be true
  and faithful to the Commonwealth of England, as
  it is now established, without a King or House of
  Lords.
• October 1649, the Engagement was extended to all
  Members of Parliament, all clergymen, all members
  of the armed forces and to all officials in the
  courts of law, in municipal government and at
  universities and schools
• Provoked extensive debate, not least because the
  press was now much freer than it had been.
  Hundreds of tracts, offering advice and opinion
  1649-1652. Was it possible to acknowledge the
  legitimacy of the new regime? Amongst them was
  Thomas Hobbes.

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Thomas Hobbes

• Leviathan (1651)
• How to reconstruct political obligation
• Man in a state of nature
• A form of contract and incorporation, involving
  the transfer of power to the sovereign in order
  to achieve security.
• Contract marriage contract market

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A radical Protestant theory

• Vindiciae Contra Tyrannos or Defence of Liberty
  against Tyrants (1579)
• Possibly by Philippe Duplessis Mornay. He escaped
  1572 massacre and fled to England, returning to
  France to aid Henri de Navarre (Henry IV) an
  active philosopher.
• contract natural liberty and equality natural
  law consent as basis for civil society popular
  sovereignty right of resistance moral not
  religious theory.
• State of nature NB influence of overseas
  exploration and colonisation Locke in the
  beginning all the world was America, natural
  freedom and equality

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Hobbes and the church

• As part of Leviathan, Hobbes also considered the
  relationship between church and state
• He concluded that private conscience was
  dangerous and that the sovereign power ought to
  decide what religion was followed. Subjects had
  to submit their souls to the direction of the
  sovereign power
• There were many, however, who vigorously opposed
  this point of view and argued for liberty of
  conscience. This was the position and argument of
  many thousands who, after 1660, found themselves
  outside the re-established national church and
  persecuted for their beliefs. They produced
  hundreds of pamphlets 1660-1689 arguing for a
  separation between the power of the state as a
  secular power and religious belief
• John Lockes Letter Concerning Toleration (1689)
  rehearsed as much as innovated.

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The English face of Machiavelli

• Such disputes made it necessary to seek guidance
• One author who seemed very relevant was
  Machiavelli, even though he had been writing in
  early C16th Florence.
• He had written about both princes and republics,
  with a marked preference for the latter and for
  mixed and balanced government
• He was seen as anti-clerical
• He wrote about human nature rather than ideal
  forms
• His republic was one that encouraged virtue the
  two were linked
• Liberty was preserved by periods of conflict and
  even violence states were organic and decayed
  and then had to be rebuilt

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• Machiavellis ideas were appropriated and debated
• Many pamphlets embraced Machiavellian ideas but
  many condemned his ideas.
• 1642 Is any prince named in any chronicle but
  in red letters?
• James Harrington, a republican, was very
  influenced.
• Harringtons friend, Henry Neville, may have had
  written a vindication of Machiavelli in 1675 but
  it could also be the work of the publisher John
  Starkey, another example of how political thought
  was not just linked to canonical authors.

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Conclusion

• Ideas about resistance the origin of political
  authority the relationship between church and
  state were extensively discussed.
• Key thinkers played a part in this but the debate
  was much wider.
• Important concepts were ones of state of nature
  society as the result of man-made artifice and
  contract freedom of conscience and the limits of
  secular authority over private belief. These were
  to be very influential on the eighteenth century
• They remained contested ie this is an on-going
  process