Title: Chapter Two:
1Chapter Two
2What Theories Do
- Developmental theorysystematic statement of
principles and generalizations that provides a
coherent framework for studying development
3What Theories Do, cont.
- Theories
- form basis for hypotheses that can be tested by
research studies - formulating right question is more difficult that
finding right answers - generate discoveries
- offer insight and guidance by providing coherent
view
4What Theories Do, cont.
- Different Types
- grand theoriescomprehensive, traditional
theories - originated in psychology
- minitheoriestheories that focus on specific area
of development - originated more in sociology through study of
social groups and family structures - emergent theoriesnew, comprehensive groupings of
minitheories - multidisciplinary approach includes historic
events and genetic discoveries
5Grand Theories
- Grand Theoriespowerful framework for
interpreting and understanding change and
development that applies to all individuals in
all contexts, across all contents
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7Psychoanalytic Theory
- Psychoanalytic theory interprets human
development in terms of motives and drives
8Freuds Ideas
- Sigmund Freud
- Three stages of development in first six years
- oral, anal, phallic
- in early childhood, latency and then adolescence,
genital - each stage includes potential conflicts
- how a person experiences and resolves conflicts
determines personality and patterns of behavior
9Eriksons Ideas
- Erik Erikson, a follower of Freud, proposed 8
developmental stages, each characterized by a
developmental crisis - trust vs. mistrust
- autonomy vs. shame
- initiative vs. guilt
- industry vs. inferiority
- identity vs. role diffusion
- intimacy vs. isolation
- generativity vs. stagnation
- integrity vs. despair
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11Behaviorism
- Behaviorism is built on laws of behavior and
processes by which behavior is learned - focus ways we learn specific behaviors that can
be described, analyzed, and predicted with
scientific accuracy
12Laws of Behavior
- Conditioningany process in which behavior is
learned - Classical conditioningIvan Pavlov
- process by which a neutral stimulus become
associated with a meaningful stimulus - stimulus and response (respondent conditioning)
- Operant conditioningB. F. Skinner
- process by which a response is gradually learned
via reinforcement or punishment - also called instrumental conditioning
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14Social Learning
- Extension of learning theory that includes
modeling which involves people observing behavior
and patterning their own after it - Modeling
- process in which people observe, then copy
behavior - Alfred Banduramost likely to occur if model is
admired or observer is inexperienced - self-efficacy motivates people to change
themselves and their contexts
15Cognitive Theory
- Focuses on the structure and development of
thought processes, which shape perceptions,
attitudes, and actions. - Jean Piagets 4 Stages
- sensorimotor
- pre-operational
- concrete operational
- formal operational
16Cognitive Theory, cont.
- Cognitive equilibriumstate of mental balance
- Cognitive adaptationassimilation, accommodation
of ideas
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18Emergent Theories
- Emergent theories arise from several accumulated
minitheories and may be the new systematic and
comprehensive theories of the future
19Sociocultural Theory
- Seeks to explain growth of individual knowledge,
development, and competencies in terms of
guidance, support, and structure supplied by the
society - human development is the result of dynamic
interaction of the developing persons and their
surrounding culture
20Guided Participation
- Guided participationtutor engages learner in
joint activities, providing instruction and
direct involvement in learning - Apprenticeship in thinkingmentor provides
instruction and support needed by novice
21The Zone of Proximal Development
- Zone of proximal developmentrange of skills
learner can perform with assistance but not
independently - learner is drawn into learning by teacher
- Cultural variations Basic principles are
universal, but skills, challenges, and
opportunities vary from culture to culture,
depending on the values and structures of the
cultures society
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23Epigenetic Theory
- Emphasizes the interaction between genes and the
environmentthe newest developmental theory - stresses that we have powerful instincts and
abilities that arise from our biological
heritage. Timing and pace of certain
developmental changes are genetically guided - performismeverything is set in advance by genes
and then is gradually manifested in the course of
maturation
24With, On, and Around the Genes
- Genetic refers to the entire genome that makes up
the particular genes that cause each person to be
unique - each human has a genetic foundation that is
unique - epigenetic theory acknowledges the powerful
instincts and abilities that arise from our
biological heritage
25With, On, and Around the Genes, cont.
- Epi with, around, before, after, on, or near
surrounding factors - epigeneticsurrounding factors that affect
expression of genetic instructions - some surrounding factors may be stress factors
others may be facilitating factors - Genetic-environmental Interactions
- genes never function alone
26Genetic Adaptation
- Adaptation of the Genes
- selective adaptation means that genes for the
traits that are most useful will become more
frequent, thus making survival of species more
likely
27What Theories Can Contribute
- Psychoanalytic theory has made us aware of
importance of early childhood experiences - Behaviorism has shown effect of immediate
environment on learning - Cognitive theory helps us understand how
intellectual process and thinking affect actions
28What Theories Can Contribute, cont.
- Sociocultural theory has reminded us that
development is embedded in a rich and
multifaceted context - Epigenetic theory emphasizes interactions between
inherited forces and immediate contexts
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30Other Theories
- Brief Solution Focused
- Narrative
- Art
- Play
- PsychoDrama
- Object-Relations
- Jungian
- Transactional Analysis
- 12 - step
- Social Learning
- Biblio-therapy
31What Theories Can Contribute, cont.
- Eclectic perspective
- approach taken by most developmentalists in which
they apply aspects of each of the various
theories rather than staying with just one - Integrated is better
32Eclectic verses Integrated
- Eclectic picks from multiple sources without
common thread
33Integration
- Integration picks from theories with purpose and
with commonality
34Level of Concepts
35The Nature-Nurture Controversy
- Is it heredity or environment that shapes us?
- How much is a result of any given
characteristics, behavior or pattern of
development is a result of genes and how much is
a result of experiences - Policy and practice nature/nurture theories are
implicit in many public policies
36Theoretical Perspectives on Hyperactivity and
Homosexuality
- AD/HD and homosexualityHow and to what extent
are nature and nurture involved in each case? - Evidence from AD/HD research that it can come
from either
37Theoretical Perspectives on Hyperactivity and
Homosexuality, cont.
- Earlier assumptions about homosexuality more
nurture than nature. As hypotheses tested,
nurture was revealed as less crucial - sexual orientation may be a matter of nature
- sexual expression may be a matter of cultural
attitude (nurture) but not sexual orientation - evidence supporting nature as main factor (e.g.,
affect of genetic linkage, prenatal hormones)
38Theoretical Perspectives on Hyperactivity and
Homosexuality, cont.
- Ideology often adds to complexity and
polarization of opinions on many subjects when
nature and nurture are considered - Important to separate assumptions from facts
- done via research and testing of hypotheses
39Chapter Three
40The Genetic Code
- Development that is dynamic, ongoing,
interactional, and unique just four chemicals
are the basic building blocks of the genetic code
41What Genes Are
- Genes are made up of DNAthe complex protein code
of genetic information - DNA directs the form and function of each body
cell as it develops
42What Genes Are, cont.
- Each molecule of DNA is called a chromosome
- Chromosomes contain instructions to make all the
proteins a living being needs - The complete packet of instructions is called a
genome - Each person has 23 sets of chromosomes, or 46
chromosomes - The human genome contains 30,000 genes
43The Beginnings of Human Life
- Gametereproductive cell that directs process by
which genetic information combined and
transmitted - Father gametessperm
- Mother gametesovum
44Zygote and Genotype
- Male and female gametes fuse and become a zygote
- Zygote begins process of duplication and division
- two reproductive cells
- Genotypethe genetic information from the 46
chromosomes - set at human conception and endures through life
45Sex Determination and Sex Ratio
- Of 22 out of 23 pairs of human chromosome, the
matching chromosomes are very closely matched - but not identical
- some genes come in slight, normal variations
called alleles - The 23rd pair is different
- in females, it is designated XX
- in males, it is designated XY
46Sex Determination and Sex Ratio, cont.
- Females always contribute one X
- Males will have 1/2 of the sperm contributing an
X and the other half contributing a Y - Critical factor in determining the sex of a
zygote is which sperm reaches the ovum first
47Sex Determination and Sex Ratio, cont.
- Other factors include
- rarely, male sperm may only carry either X or Y
- sometimes a womans uterus either unusually
alkaline or acid, giving either an X or Y sperm
an advantage - in a stressful pregnancy XY embryos are more
likely to be expelled than are XX embryos in a
spontaneous abortion, or miscarriage - current sex ratio in United States is 52 males to
48 females
48Multiple Zygotes
- Monozygotic twinsidentical twins (or
quadruplets) originate from one zygote - share identical instructions
- possibility of cloning
- 1/3 of twins monozygotic
49Multiple Zygotes, cont.
- Dizygotic twinsfrom two separate zygotes
- Dizygotic births occur once in every 60 births,
and occur as frequently as 1 in 6 pregnancies,
but usually only 1 twin develops past embryo
stage
50Multiple Zygotes, cont.
- Dizygotic twins
- women in late 30s are three times more likely to
have dizygotic twins - as menopause approaches, ovulation becomes
irregular with some cycles producing no ovas and
others producing multiple ovas - share no more genes than other offspring (about
50 percent) - 50 percent of the time one twin is male
51Duplication, Division, and Differentiation
- The zygote contains a complete set of
instructions to create a person - Complex instructions on duplication, cell
division, and differentiation
52Duplication and Division
- Zygote begins duplication and division within
hours after conception - the 23 pairs of chromosomes duplicate, forming
two complete sets of the genetic code for that
person (zygote) - these two pair sets move toward the opposite
sides of the zygote and the single cell in the
zygote splits down the middle - the zygotes outer membrane surrounds two cells,
each containing a complete set of the original
genetic code - these two cells then duplicate and divide to
become four, then eight, and so on
53Duplication and Division, cont.
- by birth, your original zygote has duplicated and
divided into 10 trillion cells . . . by
adulthood, its 100 trillion cells - Every cell carries an exact copy of the complete
genetic instructions inherited by the one-celled
zygote
54Differentiation
- Not just any cell found in the zygote can become
a person - At the 8-cell stage a third process,
differentiation, occurs - Cells begin to specialize
- they take different forms
- they reproduce at different rates, depending on
where in the growing mass they are located
55Differentiation, cont.
- Certain genes affect differentiation by switching
other genes on and others off so that the other
genes produce the right proteins at the right
timeson-off switching mechanisms - Genotypethe genetic potential
56Gene - Gene Interactions
- Multifactoral traitsinherited traits produced by
interaction of genes and environment - Polygenetic traitsinherited traits produced by
gene interaction - These are affected by on-off switching
mechanisms, additive genes, and
dominant-recessive genes
57Additive Genes
- Additive genesone of a number of genes affecting
a specific trait - each additive gene contributes to the trait
- skin color and height are determined by them
- every additive gene has some impact on a persons
phenotype - when genes interact this way, all the involved
genes contribute fairly equally
58Dominant and Recessive Genes
- Nonadditive genesphenotype shows one gene more
influential than other genes - This is also referred to as the
dominant-recessive pattern - gene showing the most influence is referred to as
dominant - gene showing the least influence is referred to
as recessive
59Dominant and Recessive Genes, cont.
- X-linked geneslocated on X chromosome
- if recessive gene is X-linked, that it is on the
X chromosome is critical - males have only one X chromosome females have 2
X chromosomes - Whatever recessive genes a male inherits on his X
chromosome cannot be counterbalanced or dominated
by alleles on a second X, so any recessive genes
on X will be expressed - Explains why males have more X-linked disorders
(ex. color blindness, many allergies, several
diseases, some learning disabilities)
60More Complications
- Genes direct the creation of 20 amino acids that
produce thousands of proteins forming the bodys
structure and directing biochemical functions - proteins of each body cell are continually
affected by other proteins, nutrients, and toxins
that influence the cell functioning
61More Complications, cont.
- genetic imprintingtendency of certain genes to
be expressed differently when inherited from
mother than from father (tagging) - some of the genes which influence height, insulin
production, and several forms of mental
retardation affect a child differently depending
on which parent they came from
62Genetic Diversity
63Mechanisms of Genetic Diversity
- Since each gamete contains only 23 chromosomes,
why is every conception genetically unique? - 8 million chromosomally different ova x 8 million
of the same 64 trillion different possibilities
of children from each couple
64Health Benefits of Genetic Diversity
- Genetic diversity safeguards human health
- Minute differences can affect the ability to
stave off certain diseases - Genetic diversity maintains the species
65From Genotype to Phenotype
- Every psychological characteristic is genetically
influenced - Every psychological characteristic and personal
trait is affected by the environment
66From Genotype to Phenotype, cont.
- Genotypegenetic potential
- Phenotypethe actual appearance of an
indivudal--combination of genetic potential and
expression - we are all carriers of the unexpressed genes
- we can pass them along through the sperm or ova
67Behavior Genetics
- Behavior geneticsstudy of effects of genes on
behavior - personality patterns, psychological disorders,
and intellectual abilities
68Senility Caused by Alzheimers Disease
- Most common and feared type of senility is
Alzheimers disease - amyloid B protein accumulates in the brain,
leading to dysfunction and destruction of brain
cells and disruption of the mind - Can be geneticbut only when early-onset
69Senility Caused by Alzheimers Disease, cont.
- If late-onset, may be a combination of genes
and environment - other predictors may include hypertension,
diabetes, high cholesterol, diet, exercise, not
smoking, weight control, mental alertness, and
physical health
70Alcoholism
- Inherited biochemistry makes some people highly
susceptible to alcohol addiction - addictive pull can be overpowering, or weak, or
something in the middle - may explain ethnic variations
71Alcoholism, cont.
- Not simply a biochemical reactionit is
psychological and physical, and biological thus
alcoholism is polygenetic, with alcoholics
inheriting a combination of biochemistry-affecting
and temperament-affecting genes - Culture counts too(whether alcohol is present in
environment)
72Chromosomal and Genetic Abnormalities
- We now give attention to these because we can
recognize - disruptions of normal development
- origins of genetic and chromosomal abnormalities
- misinformation and prejudice add to problems of
people with these abnormalities
73Chromosomal Abnormalities
- A gamete with more than or less than 23
chromosomes creates a zygote with chromosomal
abnormalities - most likely variable that creates chromosomal
abnormalities is mothers age (over 35) - fathers age (over 40) also a variable
74Chromosomal Abnormalities, cont.
- Most zygotes with chromosomal abnormalities never
come to term - spontaneous abortion occurs in about one-half of
all fetus with chromosomal abnormalities
75Down Syndrome
- Three chromosomes at gene 21 (trisomy-21)
- Syndromea cluster of distinct characteristics
that occur together in a given disorder
76Abnormalities of the 23rd Pair
- Location of sex chromosome
- Kleinfelters syndromeXXY
- seemingly normal child has delayed puberty
- Fragile X syndrome
- hanging on by a thread (mutated gene)
- intensifies from generation to generation
- Page 78
77Genetic Testing and Genetic Counseling
- Individuals with a parent, sibling, or child with
a serious genetic condition known to be dominant
or recessive - Couples with history of early spontaneous
abortions, stillbirths, or infertility - Couples from the same ethnic group or
subgroupespecially if closely related - Women over 35 and men over 40
78The Process of Genetic Counseling
- Counselor constructs couples family history
- charts patterns of health and illness over
generations - Some tests provide information before conception
79The Process of Genetic Counseling, cont.
- Other tests are prenatal- page 83
- alpha-fetoprotein assay
- ultrasound (AKA sonogram)
- amniocentesis
- chorionic villi sampling
- pre-implantation testing (used in in vitro
fertilization) - gamete selection ova/and or sperm are screened
to select ones free of particular problems
80A Basis for Decision
- Many want to know ahead of time
- Some do not
- There is a more knowledge of what is to comeor
not
81Alternatives
- If both partners are carriers of a serious
condition or are at high risk because of age or
family characteristics, they may turn to - in-vitro fertilization (IVF)
- gamete intrafallopian transfer (GIFT)
- zygote intrafallopian transfer (ZIF)
- artificial insemination donor (AID)
- postponement of pregnancy until promising
treatments are further developed
82Chapter Four
- Prenatal Development and Birth
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84From Zygote to Newborn
- Germinal periodfirst 14 days
- Embryonic period3rd through 8th weeks
- Fetal period9th week through birth
85Process of Conception
86Germinal The First 14 Days
- Zygote divides and keep dividing (at least though
3rd doubling they are the same) - At this stage (8 cells) differentiation begins
- early stem cells take on distinct
characteristics - they gravitate to locations, foreshadowing the
type of cells they will become
87Germinal The First 14 Days, cont.
- At about a week after conception the multiplying
cells separate into two masses - outer layer forms a shell (later the placenta)
and the inner cells from a nucleus (later the
embryo) - first task of out cells to achieve implantation
embed themselves into the nuturant environment of
the uterus - 60 of all natural conceptions fail to implant
70 of in vitro procedures fail to implant
88Embryo From the Third to the Eighth Week
- First sign of human structure thin line down the
middle (22 days) that becomes the neural tube,
which eventually forms the central nervous
system, including brain and spinal column - fourth week
- head begins to take shape
- heart begins with a miniscule blood vessel that
begins to pulsate
89Embryo From the Third to the Eighth Week, cont.
- fifth week
- arm and leg buds appear
- tail-like appendage extends from the spine
- eighth week
- embryo weighs 1 gram and is 1 inch long
- head more rounded face formed
- all basic organs and body parts (but for sex)
present - 20 of all embryos spontaneously abort now
90Fetus From the Ninth Week Until Birth
- Called a fetus from 9th week on
91Third Month
- Sex organs take shape (Y cell sends signal to
male sex organs for females, no signal occurs) - genital organs fully shaped by 12th week
- All body parts present
- Fetus can move every part of body
- Fetus weighs 3 ounces and is 3 inches long
92Middle Three Months Preparing to Survive
- Heartbeat stronger
- Digestive and excretory systems develop more
fully - Impressive brain growth (6X in size and
responsive) - new neurons develop (neurogenesis)
- synapsesconnections between neurons
(synaptogenesis)
93Middle Three Months Preparing to Survive, cont.
- Age of viabilityage at which preterm baby can
possibly survive (22 weeks) - 26 weeks survival rate about 50
- brain maturation critical to viability
- weight critical to viability
- 28 weeks survival rate about 95
94Fetal Brain Maturation
95Final Three Months Viability to Full Term
- Maturation of the respiratory and cardiovascular
systems - critical difference
- Gains weight4.5 lbs. in last 10 weeks
96Risk Reduction
- Despite complexity, most babies are born healthy
- Most hazards are avoidable
- Teratologystudy of birth defects
- Teratogens (ter-at-o-gens)broad range of
substances that can cause environmental insults
that may cause prenatal abnormalities or later
learning abilities
97Determining Risk
- Risk analysisweighing of factors that affect
likelihood of teratogen causing harm
98Timing of Exposure
- Critical periodin prenatal development, the time
when a particular organ or other body part is
most susceptible to teratogenic damage - entire embryonic period is critical
99Amount of Exposure
- Dose and/or frequency
- Threshold effectteratogen relatively harmless
until exposure reaches a certain level
100Amount of Exposure, cont.
- Interaction effectrisk of harm increases if
exposure to teratogen occurs at the same time as
exposure to another teratogen or risk
101Genetic Vulnerability
- Genetic susceptibilities product of genes
combined with stress - Folic-acid deficiency may cause neural- tube
defects - occurs most commonly in certain ethnic groups and
less often in others - Males are more genetically vulnerable
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103Specific Teratogens
- No way to predict risk on an individual basis
- Research has shown possible effects of most
common and damaging teratogens - AIDS and alcohol extremely damaging
- pregnant women with AIDS transmit it to their
newborns high doses of alcohol cause FAS
alcohol drug use increase risk to developing
organism
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108Low Birthweight
- Low Birthweight (LBW)
- less than 5 1/2 lbs.
- grows too slowly or weighs less than normal
- more common than 10 years ago
- second most common cause of neonatal death
- Preterm
- birth occurs 3 or more weeks before standard 38
weeks
109Low Birthweight, cont.
- Small for Gestational Age (SGA)
- maternal illness
- maternal behavior
- cigarette smoking (25 of SGA births)
- maternal malnutrition
- poorly nourished before and during pregnancy
- underweight, undereating, and smoking tend to
occur together
110Low Birthweight, cont.
- Factors that affect normal prenatal growth
- quality of medical care, education, social
support, and cultural practices
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112The Birth Process
- Hormones in mothers brain signals process
- Contractions begin strong and regular at 10
minutes apart - average labor for first births is 8 hours
113The Newborns First Minutes
- AssessmentApgar scale
- five factors, 2 points each
- heart rate
- breathing
- color
- muscle tone
- reflexes
- score of 7 or better normal
- score under 7 needs help breathing
- score under 4 needs urgent critical care
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115Variations
- Parents Reaction
- preparation for birth, physical and emotional
support, position and size of fetus, and
practices of mothers culture - Medical Attention
- birth in every developed nation has medical
attention - 22 of births in U.S. are cesarean section
- removal of fetus via incisions in mothers
abdomen and uterus - is medical intervention always necessary?
116Birth Complications
- Cerebral Palsybrain damage causing difficulties
in muscle control, possibly affecting speech or
other body movements - Anoxialack of oxygen that, if prolonged, can
cause brain damage or death
117First Intensive Care . . . Then Home
- At the Hospital
- many hospitals provide regular massage and
soothing stimulation ideally, parents share in
caregiving - At Home
- complications, e.g., minor medical crises
- cognitive difficulties may emerge, but high-risk
infants can develop normally
118Mothers, Fathers and a Good Start
- Strong family support (familia)
- Fathers play a crucial role
- may help wives abstain from drugs or alcohol
- can reduce maternal stress
- Parental alliancecommitment by both parents to
cooperate in raising child - helps alleviate postpartum depression
119Mothers, Fathers and a Good Start, cont.
- Parent-infant bondstrong, loving connection that
forms as parents hold, examine, and feed their
newborn - immediate contact not needed for this to occur