COMPUTER SCIENCE

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Applied EthicsTheories

• COMPUTER SCIENCE

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Ethical Theories

• Relativism Objectivism

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Ethical relativism

• There is no universally accepted ethical standard
• Different cultures have different ethical
  standards
• There is no objective standard of right or wrong
  (unlike natural sciences)
• Personal ethical relativism
• Social ethical relativism
• Reasons for ethical relativism
• Diversity of moral views
• Moral uncertainty
• Situation differences
• Morality is a set of believe individual or
  society have, nothing more
• Any problem with this theory?

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Arguments against ethical relativism
(Non-relativisism, Objectivism)

• Are there really differences in moral views?
• Disagreement on a moral issue does not mean that
  a correct moral stand about the issue does not
  exist.
• Moral uncertainty or moral skepticism means that
  moral decision is difficult but not impossible.
• Moral uncertainty leads to inaction.
• Perhaps someday, a solution can be found.
• Even under different situations there should be a
  "correct" moral practice.
• Some general values such as justice, compassion,
  happiness etc. do not change under any
  circumstances.
• Ethical relativism intellectual laziness, lack
  of moral courage?

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Objectivism

• The truth or falsity of typical moral judgments
  does not depend upon the beliefs or feelings of
  any person or group of persons.
• Moral propositions are analogous to propositions
  about chemistry, biology, or history.

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Objectivism

• Moral realism objective good is a reality
  independent of who view it, as in natural
  science.
• eg. Honesty, generosity etc.
• Moral pluralism there may be more than one set
  of equally valid moral principles, and sometimes
  one has to choose between them.
• eg. Choice between health and justice in health
  care system some patients will be left out.

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Ethical Theories

• Egoism and Altruism

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Egoism vs Altruism

• Psychological egoism
• People are basically self-centered.
• Even when people show concern about other
  people's welfare, it is only for show, with the
  ultimate aim of getting something in return.
• Ethical egoism
• One of the ethical theories assuming that humans
  are basically self-centered.
• Is this a viable principle? Everybody seeks
  his/her best interest?
• Unless one can take care of oneself, he/she
  cannot take care of others.
• What if the egoist considers what is good for
  the society would ultimately benefit
  himself/herself?
• Is there true altruism?
• Is Mother Teresa an altruist?
• Not rejecting altruism leads to guilt?

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Ethical Theories

• Utilitarianism

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Utilitarianism (1)

• Utilitarianism is an ethical theory put forward
  by Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832) and Stuart Mill
  (1806-1873) to promote social and legal reform in
  UK at the time.
• Our action should produce most happiness or
  reduce suffering or unhappiness.
• It is a cost-benefit analysis of moral judgment
  or decision.
• When there is a conflict of interests, the choice
  is that which promote the interests of greater
  number.
• It stresses the goal or consequence of an action
  (teleological), also called consequentialist
  moral theory.
• It does not consider the motive of the action.

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Utilitarianism (2)

• Bentham Nature has placed mankind under the
  governance of two sovereign masters, pain and
  pleasure. It is for them alone to point out what
  we ought to do.
• Wealth, health, education, freedom are just
  instrument of happiness. They are not
  intrinsically good. Happiness and pleasure are
  the only intrinsic goods.

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Utilitarianism (3)

• Unlike egoism, utilitarianism considers not only
  oneself, but all others that might be affected.
• Our own happiness does not count more than
  others.
• Unlike altruism, utilitarianism considers
  sacrifice is a waste if it does not result in
  increased happiness.
• Happiness can be quantified
• Pleasure vs pain, quality, intensity, duration,
  number of people affected etc
• "Act utilitarianism" consider each act
  separately.
• "Rule utilitarianism" considers consequences of
  the act performed as a general practice.

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Evaluating Utilitarianism

• Amount of happiness is difficult to calculate
  difficult to consider all the variables and
  contributing factors.
• This theory does not allow us to consider our own
  happiness more important than others.
• Ends justify the means. Is a wrong act
  justifiable if it produces pleasure to a large
  number of people?
• Utilitarianist might argue that in the long run
  this is bad.

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Proof of Utilitarianism

• The basis of utilitarianism is that happiness is
  the only thing we desire. Because we desire
  happiness, therefore it is desirable and good.
  All others (freedom, wealth, health etc) are just
  tools to achieve happiness. Is this true?

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Modified Utilitarianism

• Preference utilitarianism
• Happiness is not the only intrinsic good. Peace,
  freedom, knowledge, beauty etc are all intrinsic
  goods to be maximized.
• The best action is the one that would lead to
  most of the preferred intrinsic goods.
• Peoples preferences can be determined through
  polls or other means. However, people might not
  be well informed.
• Other variations include considering only
  self-regarding preferences.
• Cost-benefit analysis
• Useful for government and business policy
  determination. Every affected factor is assigned
  a money value. The best course or action is the
  one that cost the least and produces most.
  Insurance companies are using this approach to
  set their policy cost and payment.

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Ethical Theories

• Kants Moral Theory

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Kants Moral Theory (1)

• Proposed by a German philosopher Immanuel Kant
  (1724-1804).
• The motive to do what is right is important.
• The consequences of an act is not.
• People ought not be used, but should be regarded
  as having the highest intrinsic value.

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Kants Moral Theory (2)

• What is the right motive?
• Good intention is to do what one believes is the
  right thing to do, out of concern and respect for
  moral law.
• Without good intention such things as
  intelligence, wit, control of emotion etc can be
  used for evil purpose.
• Kant is not a relativist. He believed that there
  is a right and a wrong thing to do, whether or
  not we knew or agree about it.
• Example a store keeper charges her customers a
  fair price, same for all customers.
• Motive 1. Good for business, in her best
  interest. Not praiseworthy.
• Motive 2. Sympathetic to her customers, wants to
  do them good. Not the highest. (makes herself
  feels better?).
• Motive 3. Because she believes that it is the
  right thing to do. Highest motive.
• The difference between 2 3 is that in 2 the
  storekeeper did not know why she did it, just
  feels that she ought to do it.
• Moral act is when we know that we are motivated
  by concern to do the right thing, which might
  lead to our own disadvantage. (Is this similar to
  altruism?)

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Kants Moral Theory (3)

• What is the right thing to do?
• According to Kant, we must not only act out of a
  right motivation, but must also do the right
  thing. Both the motive and the act must be
  morally relevant. (Any contradiction with the
  previous condition that as long as the motive is
  good the consequences of the act is not
  important?)
• Categorical imperative (imperative is a statement
  that tells us what to do)
• Moral act that is unconditional and universally
  binding, as opposed to hypothetical imperative
  where it is only applicable under certain
  circumstances.
• First form Act only on the maxim that you can
  will as a universal law.
• Second form Always treat humanity, whether in
  your own person or that of another, never simply
  as a means but always at the same time as an
  end.
• Other forms
• Autonomy We should consider ourselves the
  authors of moral imperatives because they should
  flow from our own nature as rational beings.
• "Kingdom of ends" A community or kingdom
  of people in which all are rational beings who
  are authors as well as subjects of moral law.
• Universality Applicable under all
  circumstances. Some of these moral principles
  might become laws of nature?

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Evaluation of Kants Moral Theory

• Moral obligations. Kant believes that moral
  principles that are universal, and we ought to
  follow these moral principles. Being able to act
  out these moral obligations is the source of
  human dignity.
• Application of categorical imperatives. Moral
  acts are universal. How is this different from
  rule utilitarianism? Critics say some
  imperatives are meaningless (example of 2 way
  walkway in busy subway station)
• Second form is difficult to determine. It is not
  always easy to determine if one is using a
  person.
• Duty or obligation to moral principles. Should
  you lie to save a friend?
• Moral equality. Critics say that human are
  different from each other. Gender difference
  (rational vs emotional).
• Ref. Deontological ethical theories focus on
  both the motive and the action.

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Variations on Kantian Moral Theory

• WD Ross (1877-1971). Scottish philosopher. He
  also believes in things that we ought to do or
  ought not to do regardless of consequences.
  However, he believes that we have moral
  intuition that would help us decide the best
  course of action choice between honesty/loyalty
  etc.
• John Rawls (1921-2004). American philosopher. He
  extended Kants moral equality to social equality
  or social justice. We must consider ourselves as
  a group of equal rational beings (veil of
  ignorance) in choosing principles of justice for
  the society.
• Justice as Fairness principles of justice are
  those everyone would accept and agree to from a
  fair position

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Ethical Theories

• Natural Law Natural Rights

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Natural Law and Natural Rights

• Natural Law Theory. This was originate from
  Aristotle, a Greek philosopher and scientist,
  born in 384 BC. He held that human has certain
  characteristics that is distinct from other
  animals the rational element. Our rational
  element allows us to seek knowledge (the truth)
  and guide us to make wise choice. We, as prudent
  being, make prudential choice.
• Thomas Aquinas (1224-1274). He held that natural
  law is part of the divine law or plan (of God)
  for the universe, and that moral good is from the
  innate tendencies of our nature. Unique to human
  is the specific capacities of knowing and
  choosing freely. We therefore ought to treat
  ourselves and others as beings capable of
  understanding and free choice. (Therefore,
  education, pursue of the truth, freedom of
  expression are good. Deceit, and hindrance of
  free choice is bad).
• Natural law should not be confused with Laws of
  nature. The laws of nature describes the
  physical world, how nature behaves. Natural law,
  or moral laws, are prescriptive. They tell us how
  we ought to behave.

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Evaluating Natural Law Theory

• One of the appealing characteristics of natural
  law is its believe in the objectivity of moral
  values and the notion that moral good is part of
  human nature.
• Criticisms
• Are we really able to read nature? What are
  considered as moral good have changed through
  times. Even Aristotle thought that slavery could
  be justified. Some philosophers depicts human
  nature as deceitful, evil, and uncontrolled.
• If natural law also cover theories such as
  Social Darwinism (survival of the fittest), then
  the extremely rich and extremely poor are there
  by the design of nature, and one should not
  interfere.
• Natural law theory assumes that nature is
  teleological (it has certain directedness).
  However, can the way things are really provide
  the basis for knowing how they ought to be? The
  way nature is might not be a divine plan, but by
  chance and consequence of evolution. (Supporters
  of natural law might argue that evolution is part
  of the divine plan.)

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Natural Rights

• Natural rights is an extension of the natural
  law.
• It argues moral law in nature
• If we are to function as human, with rational
  element, with the ability and desire to seek the
  truth and to make the right choice, we must have
  certain rights right of life, liberty, and
  ability to pursue happiness. (This was part of
  the US Declaration of Independence)
• The key moral principle of western philosophy in
  the 100-200 AD, exemplified by Stoics, was to
  follow nature, but meaning to follow reason,
  not human emotion. These natural law or common
  elements existed in all people, independent of
  their local customs or culture.
• The United Nations Declaration of Human Rights
  and Geneva Conventions principles for the
  conduct of war are expression of natural rights.
  They specified that human beings have these
  rights regardless of their country of origin,
  race, or religion.

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Evaluating Natural Rights

• Need to demonstrate why human beings are so
  valuable that they can claim these rights.
  Because we are created by God? Because we are the
  highest form of evolution? Why should we have
  these rights more so than other animals?
• How do we know what kinds of rights we should
  have in order to function as human with rational
  elements?
• Is right to liberty sufficient? Right to food,
  shelter, decent living, health care, clean air
  etc?? Rationale for each of these rights needs to
  be elaborated. If these rights are justified,
  then government of all nations have the duty to
  provide them.
• Even nowadays women in many countries do not have
  the same rights as men. What is the justification
  for the gender differences?

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Ethical Theories

• Virtue Ethics

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Virtue Ethics (1)

• What is virtue? Characters like honesty, loyalty,
  courage, generosity, compassion etc. Vice is
  opposite of virtue deceitful, selfish,
  cowardice, stinginess etc.
• While previous ethical theories tells us what we
  ought to do, virtue ethics tells how we ought to
  be as a person. Virtuous person makes better
  ethical decisions.
• Aristotles idea of natural law includes the idea
  of human virtue, which he classified into two
  types
• (1) Intellectual virtues encompasses excellence
  of mind, being able to reason and judge well. We
  learned these from our teachers.
• (2) Moral virtues dispose us to act well
  (honesty, courage etc). We acquire these virtues
  by repeated practice.
• Aristotle also held that virtue is a mean between
  two extremes
• Deficit (too little) Virtue (the mean) Excess
  (too much)
• Fear Foolhardiness Courage Cowardice
• Giving Illiberality Liberality Prodigality
• Self-regard Humility Pride Vanity
• Telling the truth Deceitful Honesty Undisciplin
  ed openness

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Virtue Ethics (2)

• Gender difference in virtue? Studies showed that
  male and female tend to have different moral
  reasoning on ethical issues.
• Female Male
• Personal Impersonal
• Partial Impartial
• Private Public
• Feeling Reason
• Compassionate Fair
• Responsibility Rights
• Relationship Individual
• Solidarity Autonomy
• What is the purpose of identifying gender
  differences in moral reasoning?
• How much of these are due to cultural influence?
  
• Is there a danger of stereotyping male and
  female?
• Is this another reason to support relativism?

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Evaluating Virtue Ethics

• How do we determine which traits are virtues?
  What are the virtues that are specific to human
  beings? Are these virtues dependent on situation,
  society, culture, gender?
• Example Virtue of courage. The person who wanted
  to run away from danger but did not more
  courageous than the person who did not want to
  run away?
• One distinguishes the fears for which we are in
  some way responsible, and those we cannot help.
  Thus, the person who feels like running away
  because he/she has contributed by their own
  choices of being fearful is not more virtuous
  than the one who did not want to run away.
• Does a person who has the courage to rob a bank
  a virtuous person?
• In virtue ethics, the primary goal is to be a
  good person. It tries to determine what is
  essential to be a well-function person. It
  attempts to set up criteria for an ideal
  person. What if we fall short of these ideals?
  Are we a bad person then?
• Kant and utilitarians were well aware of
  virtues. Why did they not incorporate virtues
  into their theories? For them, doing the right
  things is the primary goal. Virtues only make it
  easier to do the right thing.

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Ethical Theories

• Contract theory of the State

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Historical Background

• Breakdown of Medieval Feudalism
• Changes to Modern Economy
• Political Changes

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Economic Changes

• Increase in the use of money
• Loans, Credit, Investments, Easier transactions
• Power transferred from the noble class (those
  with land and arms) to those with money for
  example, the merchants
• Alliance of moneyed class with monarchs
• Small self-contained estates with restricted
  trade reorganized into large-scale nation states
• New political structure favorable to freer trade,
  commerce, investment, and profit making

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Political Changes

• Nationalism
• Aggressive kings separated themselves from feudal
  lords and the church and created nation states
  with a single centralized power (For instance,
  Louis XI in France, and Henry VII and Henry VIII
  in England)
• People began to see themselves as English people
  or French people
• Printing in common languages, not just Latin
• One centralized military (under the king) that
  fights for the nation

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Hobbes Theory

• In social contract theory, there is a conception
  of human interaction before society. It is
  usually called the state of nature.
• Human fear death and inclined to in peaceful
  status
• Contract theorists use the state of nature to
• Explain the nature of society and its origin
• Explain the need for government
• Legitimize the authority of rulers
• Explain the origin of social justice
• Its not a historical explanation about how
  societies have actually arisen.

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Hobbes Social Contract

• Hobbes says that there is only one way to set up
  such a civil power.
• People must give all their power to one man, or
  one assembly of men. They must reduce their wills
  to one will.
• They must make a covenant as if every man should
  say to every man I authorize and give up my
  right of governing myself to this man on this
  condition
• Give up right(power) and could get some interest
  and security

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Social Contract Theory

• What is the origin and nature of society?
• How do governments get their authority?
• Why should we obey governments?
• On what basis do governments have the right to
  rule?
• What is the origin of justice?
• Where does justice come from?
• Why should we obey the rules of justice?

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Social Contract Theory

• When in the course of human events it becomes
  necessary for one people to dissolve the
  political bonds which have connected them with
  another. Governments are instituted among Men,
  deriving their just powers from the consent of
  the governed.

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Social Contract Theory

• Main influences on social contract theory
• Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679) English philosopher
  (Leviathan)
• John Locke (1632-1704) English philosopher
  (Essays on Civil Government)
• Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778) Swiss-born
  French philosopher (The Social Contract)
• Recent influence
• John Rawls, Harvard philosopher (A Theory of
  Justice, 1971)

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Comparison Hobbes, Locke and Rousseau
Nature of Man What is man like without restraint
of law or morality? Hobbes aggressive,
selfish Locke and Rousseau rational, sociable,
cooperative
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Condition of Man Within Nature What is life like
for Man in the State of Nature? Hobbes
solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and
short Locke Frustrating Rousseau Arcadian
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Extent of Natural Rights What Rights does Man
possess by or in nature? Hobbes self
preservation Locke God-given rights
Rousseau inalienable rights
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Source of Sovereignty Where does Political Power
come from? Hobbes ruler is sovereign Locke peop
le are sovereign government exists with the
consent of the governed Rousseau the people
are sovereign
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Purpose of Government What is the main role of
the State? Hobbes social control and keep
order Locke protect rights and serve the
majority Rousseau protect rights, serve the
general will
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Main Objections to Social Contract Theory

• Based on a historical fictionmodern anthropology
  show that human beings and ancestors were highly
  social creatures who have always lived in
  groupsin other words there was no state of
  nature in which people lived independent
  non-social lives from which they then choose
  cooperation
• Social contract Theory leaves out of
  consideration any beings that cannot be
  rationally held to contracts, such as
• Infants, Animalsetc