Expressions and Statements

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Expressions and Statements
Programming Language Concepts Lecture 16

• Prepared by
• Manuel E. Bermúdez, Ph.D.
• Associate Professor
• University of Florida

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7 Categories of Control Constructs

• Sequencing
• After A, execute B.
• A block is a group of sequenced statements.
• Selection
• Choice between two (or more) statements.
• Iteration
• A fragment is executed repeatedly.

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7 Categories of Control Constructs (contd)

• Procedural abstraction
• Encapsulate a collection of control constructs in
  a single unit.
• Recursion
• An expression defined in terms of a simpler
  version of itself.
• Concurrency
• Two or more fragments executed at same time.

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7 Categories of Control Constructs (contd)

• Non-determinacy
• Order is deliberately left unspecified, implying
  any alternative will work.

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Expression Evaluation

• Expressions consist of
• Simple object, or
• Operator function applied to a collection of
  expressions.
• Structure of expressions
• Prefix (Lisp),
• Infix (most languages),
• postfix (Postscript, Forth, some calculators)

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Expression Evaluation (contd)

• By far the most popular notation is infix.
• Raises some issues.
• Precedence
• Specify that some operators, in absence of
  parentheses, group more tightly than other
  operators.

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Expression Evaluation (contd)

• Associativity tie-breaker for operators on the
  same level of precedence.
• Left Associativity abc
• evaluated as (ab)c
• Right Associativity abc evaluated as a(bc)
• Different results may or may not accrue
• Generally (ab)c a(bc), but (a-b)-c ltgt
  a-(b-c)

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Expression Evaluation (contd)

• Specify evaluation order of operators.
• Generally, left-to-right (Java), but in some
  languages, the order is implementation-defined
  (C).

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Operators and Precedence in Various Languages

• C is operator-richer than most languages
• 17 levels of precedence.
• some not shown in figure
• type casts,
• array subscripts,
• field selection (.)
• dereference and field selection
• a-gtb, equivalent to (a).b
• Pascallt, lt, , in (row 6)

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Pitfalls in Pascal

• if a lt b and c lt d then ... is parsed as
• if a lt (b and c) lt d.
• Will only work if a,b,c are booleans.

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Pitfalls in C

• a lt b lt c parsed as (a lt b) lt c,
• yielding a comparison between
• (a lt b) (0 or 1) and c.

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Assignments

• Functional programming
• We return a value for surrounding context.
• Value of expression depends solely on referencing
  environment, not on the time in which the
  evaluation occurs.
• Expressions are "referentially transparent."

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Assignments (contd)

• Imperative
• Based on side-effects.
• Influence subsequent computation.
• Distinction between
• Expressions (return a value)
• Statements (no value returned, done solely for
  the side-effects).

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Variables

• Can denote a location in memory (l-value)
• Can denote a value (r-value)
• Typically,
• 23 c is illegal, as well as
• c 23 if c is a declared constant.

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Variables (contd)

• Expression on left-hand-side of assignment can be
  complex, as long as it has an l-value
• (f(a)3)-gtbc 2 in C.
• Here we assume f returns a pointer to an array of
  elements, each of which is a structure containing
  a field b, an array. Entry c of b has an l-value.

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Referencing/Dereferencing

• Consider
• b 2
• c b
• a b c
• Value Model Reference Model

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Referencing/Dereferencing (contd)

• Pascal, C, C use the "value model"
• Store 2 in b
• Copy the 2 into c
• Access b,c, add them, store in a.
• Clu uses the "reference" model
• Let b refer to 2.
• Let c also refer to 2.
• Pass references a,b to "", let a refer to
  result.

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Referencing/Dereferencing (contd)

• Java uses value model for intrinsic (int, float,
  etc.) (could change soon !), and reference model
  for user-defined types (classes)

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Orthogonality

• Features can be used in any combination
• Every combination is consistent.
• Algol was first language to make orthogonality a
  major design goal.

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Orthogonality In Algol 68

• Expression oriented no separate notion of
  statement.
• begin
• a if b lt c then d else e
• a begin f(b) g(c) end
• g(d)
• 23
• end

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Orthogonality In Algol 68 (contd)

• Value of 'if' is either expression (d or e).
• Value of 'begin-end' block is value of last
  expression in it, namely g(c).
• Value of g(d) is obtained, and discarded.
• Value of entire block is 5.

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Orthogonality In Algol 68 (contd)

• C does this as well
• Value of assignment is value of right-hand-side
• c b a

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Pitfall in C

• if (ab) ...
• / assign b to a and proceed / / if result is
  nonzero /
• Some C compilers warn against this.
• Different from
• if (ab) ...
• Java has separate boolean type
• prohibits using an int as a boolean.

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Initialization

• Not always provided (there is assignment)
• Useful for 2 reasons
• Static allocation
• compiler can place value directly into memory.
• No execution time spent on initialization.
• Variable not initialized is common error.

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Initialization (contd)

• Pascal has NO initialization.
• Some compilers provide it as an extension.
• Not orthogonal, provided only for intrinsics.
• C, C, Ada allow aggregates
• Initialization of a user-defined composite type.

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Example (C)

• int a 2,3,4,5,6,7
• Rules for mismatches between declaration and
  initialization
• int a4 1,2,3 / rest filled with zeroes /
• int a4 0 / filled with all zeroes /
• int a4 1,2,3,4,5,6,7 / oops! /
• Additional rules apply for multi-dimensional
  arrays and structs in C.

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Uninitialized Variables

• Pascal guarantees default values (e.g. zero for
  integers)
• C guarantees zero values only for static
  variables, garbage for everyone else !

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Uninitialized Variables (contd)

• C distinguishes between
• initialization (invocation of a constructor, no
  initial value is required)
• Crucial for user-defined ADT's to manage their
  own storage, along with destructors.
• assignment (explicit)

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Uninitialized Variables (contd)

• Difference between initialization and assignment
  variable length string
• Initialization allocate memory.
• Assignment deallocate old memory AND allocate
  new.

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Uninitialized Variables (contd)

• Java uses reference model, no need for
  distinction between initialization and
  assignment.
• Java requires every variable to be "definitely
  assigned", before using it in an expression.
• Definitely assigned every execution path assigns
  a value to the variable.

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Uninitialized Variables (contd)

• Catching uninitialized variables at run-time
  is expensive.
• harware can help, detecting special values, e.g.
  "NaN" IEEE floating-point standard.
• may need extra storage, if all possible bit
  patterns represent legitimate values.

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Combination Assignment Operators

• Useful in imperative languages, to avoid
  repetition in frequent updates
• a a 1
• b.c3.d b.c3.d 2 / ack ! /
• Can simplify
• a
• b.c3.d 2

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Combination Assignment Operators (contd)

• Syntactic sugar for often used combinations.
• Useful in combination with autoincrement
  operators
• A--ib equivalent to
• Ai - 1 b

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Combination Assignment Operators (contd)

• p q / has higher precedence than
  /
• equivalent to
• (tp, p 1, t) (tq, q 1, t)
• Advantage of autoincrement operators
• Increment is done in units of the (user-defined)
  type.

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Comma Operator

• In C, merely a sequence
• int a2, b3
• a,b 6 / now a2 and b6 /
• int a2, b3
• a,b 7,6 / now a2 and b7
  /
• / has higher precedence than
  , /

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Comma Operator

• In Clu, "comma" creates a tuple
• a,b 3,4 assigns 3 to a, 4
  to b
• a,b b,a swaps them !
• We already had that in RPAL
• let t(1,2)
• in (t 2, t 1)

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Ordering within Expressions

• Important for two reasons
• Side effect
• One sub expression can have a side effect upon
  another subexpression
• (b a a--)
• Code improvement
• Order evaluation has effect on register/instructio
  n scheduling.

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Ordering within Expressions (contd)

• Example a b f(c)
• Want to call f first, avoid storing (using up a
  register) for ab
• during call to f.

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Ordering within Expressions (contd)

• Example
• a Bi
• c a 2 d 3
• Want to calculate d 3 before a 2 Getting a
  requires going to memory (slow) calculating d
  3 can proceed in parallel.

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Ordering within Expressions (contd)

• Most languages leave subexpression order
  unspecified (Java is a notable exception, uses
  left-to-right)
• Some will actually rearrange subexpressions.

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Example (Fortran)

• a b c
• c c e b
• rearranged as
• a b c
• c b c e
• and then as
• a b c
• c a e

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Rearranging Can Be Dangerous

• If a,b,c are close to the precision limit (say,
  about ¾ of largest possible value), then
• a b - c will overflow, whereas
• a - c b will not.
• Safety net most compilers guarantee to follow
  ordering imposed by parentheses.

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Short Circuit Evaluation

• As soon as we can conclude outcome of the
  evaluation, skip the remainder of it.
• Example (in Java)
• if ( list ! null list.size() ! 0))
  System.out.println(list.size())
• Will never throw null pointer exception

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Short Circuit Evaluation (contd)

• Can't do this in Pascal
• if (list ltgt nil) and (list.size ltgt 0)
• will evaluate list.size even when list is nil.
• Cumbersome to do it in Pascal
• if list ltgt nil then
• if list.size ltgt 0 then
• System.out.println(list.size())

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Short Circuit Evaluation (contd)

• So, is short-circuit evaluation always good?
• Not necessarily.

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Short Circuit Evaluation (contd)
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Short Circuit Evaluation (contd)

• Here, the idea is to tally AND to spell-check
  every word, and print the word if it's misspelled
  and has appeared for the 10th time.
• If the 'and' is short-circuit, the program
  breaks.
• Some languages (Clu, Ada, C) provide BOTH
  short-circuit and non short-circuit Boolean
  operators.

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Structured Programming

• Federal Law Abandon Goto's !
• Originally, Fortran had goto's
• if a .lt. b goto 10
• ...
• 10

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Structured Programming (contd)

• Controversy surrounding Goto's
• Paper (letter to editor ACM Comm.) in 1968 by E.
  Dykstra
• "Goto statement Considered Harmful"
• argument Goto's create "spaguetti code".

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Structured Programming (contd)

• Legacy structured programming use of
• sequencing ()
• alternation (if)
• iteration (while)
• Sufficient to solve any problem.

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Structured Programming (contd)

• Part of focus on control during first 40 years
  in programming.
• During 80's, 90's and beyond, focus shifted to
  data (OO-programming)

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Structured Programming (contd)

• Common (former) use of goto break out of
  loop(s), maybe deeply nested
• while true do begin
• if (...) then goto 100
• end
• 100 ...

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Structured Programming (contd)

• In C, this can be accomplished using a 'break'
  statement, but consider this ...
• while (...)
• switch (...)
• ...
• goto loop_done / break won't do /
• loop_done ...

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Structured Programming (contd)

• Today, we use exceptions.
• Exception Upon a certain (error) condition,
  allows a program to back out of nested context to
  some point where it can recover and proceed.
• Requires unwinding of the stack frame.
• More later.

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Structured Programming (contd)

• Semantically, goto's are very difficult to
  understand and implement correctly.
• Some (circumstantial) evidence
• RPAL ? LPAL ? JPAL
• (JPAL PAL with jumps)
• JPAL by far the hardest of the three to describe.

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Structured Programming (contd)

• When executing a jump, we might be
• exiting one or more procedure calls.
• exiting many nested loops.
• diving into the middle of a procedure
• diving into the middle of a loop.
• What happens to the stack ???

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Structured Programming (contd)

• Goto's in general described using
  continuations
• A continuation captures the context (state) in
  which execution might continue.
• Continuations essential to denotational semantics
  (more later).

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Statement Sequencing

• Basic assumption
• A sequence of statements will have side effects.
• Not always desirable easier to reason (prove
  correct) programs in which functions have no side
  effects.
• Sometimes side-effects are very desirable.
  Example rand() function.
• want it to produce a different number each time
  it's called.

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Statement Selection

• Most languages use a variant of the original
  if...then...else introduced in Algol 60
• if condition then statement
• else if condition then statement
• else if condition then statement
• ...
• else statement

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Statement Selection (contd)

• switch (condition)
• case a block_a
• case b block_b
• ...
• default block_c
• is often syntactical sugar for
• if (condition a) block_a
• else if (condition b) block_b
• ...
• else block_c

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Statement Selection (contd)

• Some languages require explicit break statements
  between cases, otherwise all the other cases
  evaluate to true (e.g. C)

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Short-Circuited Conditions

• Design goal implement ifs efficiently.
• Jump code efficient organization of code to take
  advantage of short-circuited boolean expressions.
• Value of expression never stored in a register.

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Short-Circuited Conditions (contd)

• If the value of the entire expression is needed,
  we can still use jump code.
• Example (Ada)
• found p / null and then p.key val
• equivalent to
• if p / null and then p.keyval then
• found true
• else
• found false
• end if

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Short-Circuited Conditions (contd)

• Jump code
• r1 p
• if r10 goto L1
• r2 r1-gtkey
• if r2 ltgt val goto L1
• r1 1
• goto L2
• L1 r10
• L2 found r1

Could be L2! Better to perform that improvement
in a code optimizer
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Case/Switch Statements

• Alternative syntax for nested if...then...else
  statements. Example
• i ( potentially complicated expression )
• if i1 then
• clause_A
• else if i2 or i7 then
• clause_B
• else if i gt3 and i lt 5 then
• clause_C
• else if i10 then
• clause_D
• else
• clause_E

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Corresponding CASE statement

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Case/Switch Statements (contd)

• Purpose of case statement is not only syntactic
  elegance, but efficiency. Wish to compute the
  address to which to branch.
• So, list ten cases (range of values tested)
• Store addresses starting at location T (jump
  table).
• Calculate r1 (the test expression value).
• First test for r1 out of range 1..10.
• Subtract 1 from r1, obtaining an offset (0..9).
• Get address Tr1, store in r2.
• Branch to (indirect) r2.

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Case/Switch Statements (contd)

• Advantages fast, occupies reasonable space if
  labels are dense.
• Disadvantage can occupy enormous amounts of
  space if values are not dense (e.g. 1, 3..5,
  50000..50003)

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Case/Switch Statements (contd)

• Variations
• Use hash table for T.
• Good idea if total range is large, many missing
  values, and no large value ranges.
• Requires a separate entry for each possible
  value.
• Use binary search for table T.
• Good idea if value ranges are large, runs in
  O(log n) time.

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Case/Switch Statements (contd)

• Combining techniques
• Compilers usually generate code for each arm,
  building up knowledge of the label set.
• Then use knowledge to choose strategy (binary
  search or hash table).
• Less sophisticated compilers often generate poor
  code, programmer must restructure case statement
  to prevent huge tables, or very inefficient code.

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Case/Switch Statements (contd)

• Pascal, C don't allow ranges (avoid binary
  search).
• Standard Pascal doesn't allow a default clause
• Run-time semantic error if no case matches
  expression.
• Many Pascal compilers do allow it as an
  extension.

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Case/Switch Statements (contd)

• Modula provides an optional ELSE clause.
• Ada requires labels to cover ALL values in the
  domain of the type of the expression. Ranges
  and an others clause are allowed.
• C, Fortran 90 OK for expression to match no
  value statement does nothing.

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Case/Switch Statements (contd)

• C is different in other respects
• A label can have an empty arm,
• Control "falls" through to next label.
• Effectively allows lists of values.
• Example
• switch (grade)
• case 10 case 9 case 8 case 7
• printf("Pass") break
• default printf("Fail") break

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Case/Switch Statements (contd)

• 'break' needed to prevent fallthrough.
• If a value matches test expression, fall-through
  takes place i.e. no more comparisons.

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Case/Switch Statements (contd)

• Example
• switch (grade)
• case 10 case 9 case 8 case 7
• num_pass
• case 6 borderline
• case 0 case 1 case 2
• case 3 case 4 case 5
• fail
• default total break
• In C, a forgotten break can be a difficult bug to
  find.

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Expressions and Statements
Programming Language Concepts Lecture 16

• Prepared by
• Manuel E. Bermúdez, Ph.D.
• Associate Professor
• University of Florida