Body Basics

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Chapter 4

• Body Basics

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Body Chemistry Concepts

• Matter comprised of an atom that contains
  protons and electrons
• Protons charged particles in the nucleus of
  the atom
• Electrons - charged particles that surround the
  nucleus of an atom
• Number of electrons equals the number of protons,
  atoms are neutral

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• Elements each type of atom under ordinary
  conditions, a substance that cannot be broken
  down into distinctive components
• Building blocks of matter

• Minerals elements that are found in the earths
  crust
• Essential nutrients
• Ca, Fe, K

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Essential Elements
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Molecules

• Molecule matter that forms when two or more
  atoms interact and are held together by a
  chemical bond
• Chemical bond attraction that holds atoms
  together

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Definitions.

• Compounds molecules that contain two or more
  different elements
• Solution evenly distributed mixture of two
  compounds
• Solvent primary compound of a solution
• Solute lesser component in a solution
• Solubility describes how easily a substance
  dissolves in liquid solvent

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More definitions.

• Ion atom or group of atoms that has a positive
  or negative charge
• H hydrogen ion chemical formula
• Electrolytes ions that conduct electricity when
  they are dissolved in a solution
• Acids substances that donate hydrogen ions
• Bases substances that accept hydrogen ions
• pH measure of the acidity or alkalinity of a
  solution

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And more definitions.

• Chemical reactions process that changes that
  atomic arrangement of molecules
• Digestion process by which large ingested
  molecules are mechanically and chemically broken
  down
• Salt substance when acid combines with a base
• Metabolism the sum of all chemical reactions
  occurring in living cells

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Basic Physiology Concepts

• Anatomy the scientific study of cells and other
  body structures
• Physiology scientific study of the functioning
  of cells and other body structures

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Human Cell
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Human Cell

• Organelles structures in cells that perform
  specialized functions
• Nucleus Organization and expression of the
  genetic material (DNA)
• Plasma membrane Movement of substances into and
  out of the cell
• Ribosome protein synthesis
• Mitochondrion Site of ATP (high-energy
  molecule) synthesis

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Cells cont

• Tissues collection of cells that perform a
  specific function
• Epithelial tissues cells that line every body
  surface (skin, inside of blood vessels)
• Connective tissues type of cells that hold
  together, protect and support organs (fat, bone
  and blood)

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Organization of the human body
Cell
Tissue
Organ
System
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Definitions

• Organ collection of tissues that perform a
  specific function
• Organ system Collection of organs that work
  together to perform a major function
• Homeostasis relatively constant internal
  environment in the body that is critical for good
  health and survival

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Definitions

• Arteries vessels that carry blood away from the
  heart
• Capillaries smallest blood vessels
• Veins vessels that return blood to the heart.

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Cardiovascular System

• Heart
• Blood vessels
• Blood
• Circulation of blood throughout the body

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Respiratory System

• Exchange of O2 and CO2

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Blood transports the respiratory gases, with
hemoglobin carrying the oxygen

• The heart pumps oxygen-poor blood to the lungs
• In the lungs it picks up O2and drops off CO2
• In the tissues, cells pick up CO2and drop off O2
• Gases diffuse down pressure gradients in the
  lungs and the tissues

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Gas exchange in the body
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Hemoglobin is a protein in red blood cells

• It carries most of the oxygen in the blood

Heme group Iron atom
O2 loaded in lungs O2 unloaded in tissues
O2
O2
Polypeptide chain
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• Hemoglobin helps buffer the pH of blood and
  carries some CO2
• Most CO2 in the blood combines with water to form
  carbonic acid
• The carbonic acid breaks down to form Hions and
  bicarbonate ions
• These help buffer the blood
• Most CO2 is transported to the lungs in the form
  of bicarbonate ions

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Lymphatic System

• Defense and immunity against infectious agents,
  fluid balance, WBC production, absorption of
  fat-soluble nutrients from intestinal track
• Other parts
• Lymphatic fluid
• WBC
• Primary lymphoid organs
• Bone marrow and thymus
• Secondary lymphoid organs
• Spleen, lymph nodes

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Lymphatic System
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Lymphoid Cells

• Lymphocytes are the main cells involved in the
  immune response
• Two main varieties
• T cells
• B cells
• T cells and B cells protect the body against
  antigens
• Antigen substances that can stimulate the
  immune system
• Self
• Nonself
• Bacteria and their toxins viruses
• Mismatched RBCs or cancer cells

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Lymphocytes

• T cells
• Manage the immune response
• Attack and destroy foreign cells
• B cells
• Produce plasma cells, which secrete antibodies
• Antibodies immobilize antigens

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Other Lymphoid Cells

• Macrophages phagocytize foreign substances and
  help activate T cells
• Dendritic cells spiny-looking cells with
  functions similar to macrophages
• Reticular cells fibroblastlike cells that
  produce a stroma, or network, that supports other
  cell types in lymphoid organs

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Thymus

• The thymus differs from other lymphoid organs in
  important ways
• It functions strictly in T lymphocyte maturation
• It does not directly fight antigens
• The stroma of the thymus consists of starshaped
  epithelial cells (not reticular fibers)
• These epithelial cells (thymocytes) secrete the
  hormones that stimulate lymphocytes to become
  immunocompetent

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Thymus
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Spleen

• Largest lymphoid organ, located on the left side
  of the abdominal cavity beneath the diaphragm
• It is served by the splenic artery and vein,
  which enter and exit at the hilus
• Functions
• Site of lymphocyte proliferation
• Immune surveillance and response
• Cleanses the blood

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Additional Spleen Functions

• Stores breakdown products of RBCs for later reuse
• Spleen macrophages salvage and store iron for
  later use by bone marrow
• Site of fetal erythrocyte production (normally
  ceases after birth)
• Stores blood platelets

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Spleen
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Lymphoid Tissue

• Diffuse lymphatic tissue scattered reticular
  tissue elements in every body organ
• Larger collections appear in the lamina propria
  of mucous membranes and lymphoid organs
• Lymphatic follicles (nodules) solid, spherical
  bodies consisting of tightly packed reticular
  elements and cells
• Germinal center composed of dendritic and B cells
• Found in isolation and as part of larger lymphoid
  organs

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Tonsils

• Simplest lymphoid organs form a ring of
  lymphatic tissue around the pharynx
• Location
• Palatine tonsils either side of the posterior
  end of the oral cavity
• Lingual tonsils lie at the base of the tongue
• Pharyngeal tonsil posterior wall of the
  nasopharynx
• Tubal tonsils surround the openings of the
  auditory tubes into the pharynx

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Urinary System

• Elimination of salts, water, and wastes
  maintenance of fluid balance

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Muscular System

• Movement and stability of body

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Facts about muscles

• Muscle A tissue composed of fibers capable of
  contracting to effect bodily movement
• There are about 650 muscles in the human body.
• Every person has a unique tongue print.
• Hiccups are spasm of the diaphragm.

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Types of Muscles

• Skeletal muscles
• Attached to bones. (what happens when you extend
  your arm?)
• Smooth muscle
• Surround organs, tubes, eg. stomach, urinary
  bladder, blood vessels. Contract propels content
  through organs (eg. expel urine).
• Cardiac muscles
• Heart muscle makes your heart pump blood.

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Skeletal System
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Facts about skeletal system

• Do we have more bones when we are a baby or when
  we are all grown up?
• Baby has 305 bones and an adult has 206 bones.
  This is because as we grown some of our bones
  join together to form one bone.
• The longest bone in our bodies is the femur
  (thigh bone).
• The smallest bone is the stirrup bone inside the
  ear.
• Each hand has 26 bones in it.
• our nose and ears are not made of bone they are
  made of cartilage, a flexible substance that is
  not as hard as bone.
• Differences between males and females Males and
  females have slightly different skeletons,
  including a different elbow angle. Males have
  slightly thicker and longer legs and arms
  females have a wider pelvis and a larger space
  within the pelvis, through which babies travel
  when they are born.

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Five main functions of the human skeleton

• Protect the vital organs we talked about last
  week
• 2. Give us shape
• 3. Allow us to move because our muscles
• are attached to our bones
• 4. Storage of nutrients such as calcium and
  silicon
• 5. Formation of blood cells

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Nervous System

• Thought process, regulation and coordination of
  many body activities, detection of changes in
  external and internal environments

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Basic nerve structure
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3 types of nerve structures
sensory neurone
motor neurone
relay neurone
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Endocrine System

• Main Function
• It releases hormones into the blood to signal
  other cells to behave in certain ways. It is a
  slow but widespread form of communication.
• Regulation and coordination of many body
  activities, including growth, nutrient balance,
  and reproduction

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Endocrine System (Pituitary Gland)

• Function It secretes nine hormones that directly
  regulate many body functions and controls
  functions of other glands.
• Disorders Too much growth hormones (GH) in early
  childhood can result in a condition called
  gigantism. Too little GH can result in Pituitary
  Dwarfism.

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Endocrine (thyroid gland)

• Function plays a major role in regulation the
  bodys metabolism.
• Disorders If the Thyroid Gland produces too much
  Thyroxin, it can cause a condition known as
  Hyperthyroidism. If too little thyroxin produces
  it is called Hypothyroidism.

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Endocrine (pancreas)

• Function The Insulin and Glycogen in the
  Pancreas help to keep the level of glucose in the
  blood stable.
• Disorders When the Pancreas fails to produce or
  properly use Insulin, it can cause a condition
  known as Diabetes Mellitus.

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Endocrine (Adrenal Gland)

• Functions
• -The adrenal glands release Adrenaline in the
  body that helps prepare for and deal with stress.
• -Also regulates kidney function.

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Endocrine (ovaries)

• Functions
• Pair of reproductive organs found in women that
  produce eggs.
• Also secrete estrogen and progesterone, which
  control ovulation and menstruation.

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Endocrine (testes)

• Functions
• Pair of reproductive glands that produces sperm.
• Also secrete Testosterone to give the body its
  masculine characteristics.

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Integumentary System
Functions of skin Protection Cushions and
insulates and is waterproof Protects from
chemicals, heat, cold, bacteria Screens
UV Synthesizes vitamin D with UV Regulates body
heat Prevents unnecessary water loss Sensory
reception (nerve endings)
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Dermis

• Strong, flexible connective tissue your hide
• Cells fibroblasts, macrophages, mast cells, WBCs
• Fiber types collagen, elastic, reticular
• Rich supply of nerves and vessels
• Critical role in temperature regulation (the
  vessels)
• Two layers
• Papillary areolar connective tissue includes
  dermal papillae
• Reticular reticulum (network) of collagen
  and reticular fibers

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Burns
First-degree (epidermis only redness)
Second-degree (epidermis and dermis, with
blistering)
Third-degree (full thickness, destroying
epidermis, dermis, often part of hypodermis)
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Skin Cancer
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Nails
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Hair

• Functions of hair
• Warmth less in man than other mammals
• Sense light touch of the skin
• Protection - scalp
• Parts
• Root imbedded in skin
• Shaft projecting above skin surface
• Make up of hair hard keratin

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Hair cont

• Types of hair
• Vellus fine, short hairs
• Intermediate hairs
• Terminal longer, courser hair
• Hair color
• Amount of melanin for black or brown distinct
  form of melanin for red
• White decreased melanin and air bubbles in the
  medulla
• Genetically determined though influenced by
  hormones and environment

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Reproductive System

• Procreation

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Reproduction

• Primary sex organs (gonads) testes in males,
  ovaries in females
• Gonads produce sex cells called gametes
  and secrete sex hormones
• Accessory reproductive organs ducts, glands,
  and external genitalia
• Sex hormones androgens (males), and estrogens
  and progesterone (females)

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Digestive System

• Digestion and absorption of nutrients

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Digestion Phases and structures

• Structures
• Mouth
• Oral Cavity
• Pharynx
• Esophagus
• Stomach
• Duedenum
• Jejenum
• IIleum
• Cecum
• Ascending colon
• Transverse colon

• Phases
• Ingestion
• Movement
• Digestion
• Absorption
• Further digestion

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Mouth

• Mechanical digestion
• Senses taste and texture
• Salivary glands

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Esophagus

• A tube that extends about 10 inches from the back
  of the mouth, the pharynx, to the top of the
  stomach
• Epiglottis flap of tissue that folds down over
  the windpipe to keep food from entering the
  respiratory system
• Gastroesophageal sphincter section of esophagus
  next to stomach that controls the opening to the
  stomach

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Stomach

• Holds up to four cups of food
• Chyme mixture of gastric juices and partially
  digested food
• Pyloric sphincter controls the rate in which
  chyme is released into the small intestine
• Stomach usually empties in about 4 hours

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Stomach cont

• Functions
• Mix food
• Reservoir
• Start digestion of
• Protein
• Nucleic acids
• Fats
• Activates some enzymes
• Destroy some bacteria
• Makes intrinsic factor B 12 absorption
• Destroys some bacteria

• Absorbs
• Alcohol
• Water
• Lipophilic acid
• B 12

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Small intestine

• 6 1/2 feet long
• Villa
• 3 sections
• Duodenum
• Jejunum
• Ileum

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Villi in small intestine
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Small intestine cont

• Secretes digestive enzymes
• Peptidases
• Amino-
• Di-
• Tri-
• Sucrases
• Maltase
• Lactase
• Saccharidases
• Di-
• Tri-
• Lipase
• Nucleases

• Requires pancreatic enzymes bile to complete
  digestion

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Large intestine

• Regions
• Cecum Appendix
• Colon
• Ascending
• Transverse
• Descending
• Rectum
• Anal canal
• Chyme becomes feces

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Feces Formation

• Chyme dehydrated to form feces
• Feces composition
• Water
• Inorganic salts
• Epithelial cells
• Bacteria
• Byproducts of digestion
• Defecation
• Peristalsis pushes feces into rectum
• Rectal walls stretch

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Accessory Organs

• Play role in digestion even though chyme does not
  move through them
• Liver
• process and stores nutrients
• Makes cholesterol
• Uses lipids to make bile
• Gallbladder
• When food and fat are in the duodenum, the small
  intestine send signal for gallbladder to release
  bile into duodenum
• Pancreas
• Produces and secretes most of the enzymes that
  break down carbs, protein, and fat in GI tract
• Secretes biocarbonate ions that neutralizes HCL
  in chyme

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Liver cont

• Liver Functions
• Makes bile
• Detergent emulsifies fats
• Release promoted by
• Vagus n.
• CCK
• Secretin
• Contains
• Water
• Bile salts
• Bile pigments
• Electrolytes
• Cholesterol
• Lecithin

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More Liveryuck

• Detoxifies/removes
• Drugs
• Alcohol
• Stores
• Gycolgen
• Vitamins (A, D, E, K)
• Fe and other minerals
• Cholesterol
• Activates vitamin D
• Fetal RBC production
• Phagocytosis
• Metabolizes absorbed food molecules
• Carbohydrates
• Proteins
• Lipids
• Dual blood supply
• Hepatic portal vein
• Direct input from small intestine
• Hepatic artery/vein