PowerLecture: Chapter 8

1
PowerLectureChapter 8

• Blood

2
Learning Objectives

• Describe the composition and functions of blood.
• Explain how red blood cells transport oxygen.
• Explain the basis of blood typing.
• Define hemostasis and distinguish it from
  homeostasis.

3
Learning Objectives (contd)

• Describe how blood disorders disrupt homeostasis
  and critical body functions, such as clotting.

4
Impacts/Issues

• Chemical Questions

5
Chemical Questions

• Healthy people have contaminants in their blood.
• The chemicals are products from everyday life
  metals, secondhand cigarette smoke, pesticides,
  etc.
• Most of the chemicals did not even exist 50 years
  ago.
• Not enough is known about the long-term effects
  of these chemicals on human health, especially
  for the very young.

6
Useful References for Impacts/Issues

• The latest references for topics covered in this
  section can be found at the book companion
  website. Log in to the books e-resources page at
  www.thomsonedu.com to access InfoTrac articles.
• Environmental Scorecard - In Your Community
• InfoTrac Elevated Blood Lead Levels in Refugee
  Children New Hampshire, 20032004. Morbidity
  and Mortality Weekly Report, Jan. 21, 2005.

7
How Would You Vote?

• To conduct an instant in-class survey using a
  classroom response system, access JoinIn Clicker
  Content from the PowerLecture main menu.
• Government regulation of substances such as lead
  seems to be effective. Should other suspect
  industrial chemicals be regulated?
• a. Yes, until companies are forced to prove their
  chemicals are harmless before selling them, they
  should be regulated.
• No, regulation hampers industry and is not
  necessary unless these chemicals are proven
  harmful.

8
Useful References for How Would You Vote?

• The latest references for topics covered in this
  section can be found at the book companion
  website. Log in to the books e-resources page at
  www.thomsonedu.com to access InfoTrac articles.
• CDC National Report on Human Exposure to
  Environmental Chemicals
• Environmental Working Group Body Burden
• NRDC Healthy Milk, Healthy Baby Chemical
  Pollution and Mothers Milk

9
Section 1

• Blood Plasma, Blood Cells, and Platelets

10
Blood Plasma, Blood Cells, and Platelets

• Blood is a connective tissue it contains plasma,
  blood cells, and cell fragments called platelets.
• Adult women of average size have 4-5 liters of
  blood in their bodies men have slightly more.

Figure 8.1
11
red blood cell
white blood cell
platelets
Fig. 8.1, p.143
12
Blood Plasma, Blood Cells, and Platelets

• Plasma is the fluid part of blood.
• Roughly 55 of whole blood is plasma, which is
  mostly water.
• Plasma proteins perform a variety of tasks
• Albumin is important in maintaining osmotic
  balance and transports chemicals such as
  therapeutic drugs.
• Other plasma proteins include protein hormones,
  as well as proteins involved in immunity, blood
  clotting, and the transport of lipids and
  vitamins.
• Plasma further contains ions, glucose, amino
  acids, signaling molecules, and dissolved gases.

13
Blood Plasma, Blood Cells, and Platelets

• Red blood cells carry oxygen and CO2.
• Erythrocytes, or red blood cells, (45 of whole
  blood) are biconcave disks.
• They contain hemoglobin, an iron-containing
  protein that binds with oxygen.
• They also carry a small amount of carbon dioxide.
• Red blood cells originate from stem cells in the
  bone marrow.

14
natural killer cells
T lymphocytes
neutrophils
mast cells
eosinophils
basophils
B lymphocytes
forerunners of white blood cells (leukocytes)
?
stem cells in marrow
monocytes (immature phagocytes)
red blood cells (erythrocytes)
dendritic cells
macrophages
platelets
megakaryocytes
Fig. 8.2, p.145
15
Blood Plasma, Blood Cells, and Platelets

• White blood cells perform defense and cleanup
  duties.
• Leukocytes, or white blood cells, make up a minor
  portion of whole blood and are responsible for
  housekeeping and defense they also are derived
  from bone marrow.
• Leukocytes are of two main types
• Granulocytes have stainable granules in the
  cytoplasm they include neutrophils, eosinophils,
  and basophils and they work in body defense
  activities.
• Agranulocytes have no visible granules monocytes
  become macrophages and lymphocytes become B
  cells, T cells, and natural killer cells.

16
Blood Plasma, Blood Cells, and Platelets

• Platelets help clot blood.
• Platelets are fragments of megakaryocytes
  produced by bone marrow stem cells.
• They are short lived, numerous, and function in
  blood clotting.

17
Functions
Components
Relative Amounts
Plasma portion (50-60 of total volume)
91-92 of plasma volume 7-8 1-2
Solvent Defense, clotting, lipid transport,
roles in extracellular fluid volume, etc. Roles
in extracellular fluid volume, pH, etc.

1. Water
2. Plasma proteins (albumin, globulins, fibrinogen,
   etc.)
3. Ions, sugars, lipids, amino acids, hormones,
   vitamins, dissolved gasses

Plasma portion (50-60 of total volume)

1. White blood cells Neutrophils Lymphocytes
   Monocytes(macrophages) Eosinophils
   Basophils
2. Platelets
3. Red blood cells

3,000-6,750 1,000-2,700 150-720 100-360
25-90 250,00-300,000 4,800,000-5,400,000 per
microliter
Phagocytosis during inflammation Immune
responses Phagocytosis in all defense
responses Defense against parasitic worms Secrete
substances for inflammatory response and for fat
removal from blood Roles in clotting Oxygen,
carbon dioxide transport
Fig. 8.1, p.143
18
Video Immortality Industry

• This video clip is available in CNN Today Videos
  for Anatomy and Physiology, 2004, Volume VIII.
  Instructors, contact your local sales
  representative to order this volume, while
  supplies last.

19
Useful References for Section 1

• The latest references for topics covered in this
  section can be found at the book companion
  website. Log in to the books e-resources page at
  www.thomsonedu.com to access InfoTrac articles.
• InfoTrac FDA to Hear Artificial Blood Test
  Proposal. UPI NewsTrack, July 6, 2006.

20
Section 2

• How Blood Transports Oxygen

21
How Blood Transports Oxygen

• Hemoglobin is the oxygen
• carrier.
• Only a tiny amount of oxygen
• is dissolved in blood plasma.
• Most of the oxygen is bound to the heme groups of
  hemoglobin oxygen-bearing hemoglobin is called
  oxyhemoglobin.
• What determines how much oxygen hemoglobin can
  carry?

22
How Blood Transports Oxygen

• The amount of oxygen bound to hemoglobin changes
  as conditions in the tissues vary.
• Binding of oxygen is favored by conditions in the
  lungs abundant oxygen, cooler temperature, and
  neutral pH.
• Release of oxygen is favored in the tissues where
  the oxygen levels are lower, temperatures higher,
  and pH more acidic.
• Hemoglobin also transports a small amount of
  carbon dioxide.

23
LUNGS
TISSUES
more O2 cooler less acidic
less O2 warmer more acidic
HbO2
HbO2
Hb O2
Hb O2
p.146
24
Animation Globin and Hemoglobin Structure
CLICKTO PLAY
25
How Blood Transports Oxygen

• Each hemoglobin molecule has four polypeptide
  chains (globin proteins), each of which possesses
  a heme group containing an iron molecule each
  iron binds one molecule of oxygen.

26
Fig. 8.3b, p.146
heme group
coiled and twisted polypeptide chain of one
globin molecule
27
Useful References for Section 2

• The latest references for topics covered in this
  section can be found at the book companion
  website. Log in to the books e-resources page at
  www.thomsonedu.com to access InfoTrac articles.
• Royal Society of Chemistry Transport of Oxygen
  in the Blood
• InfoTrac Hemoglobin Levels Are Testy Issue. New
  York Daily News, Feb. 12, 2006.

28
Section 3

• Hormonal Control of Red Blood Cell Production

29
Hormonal Control of Red Blood Cell Production

• Red blood cells form from stem cells located in
  red bone marrow.
• The hormone erythropoietin from the kidneys is
  the stimulus for stem cell division.
• Mature red blood cells have no nuclei and live
  for only about 120 days.
• Macrophages remove old blood cells from the
  bloodstream amino acids are returned to the
  blood, iron is returned to the bone marrow, and
  heme groups are converted to bilirubin.
• Red cell counts remain rather constant at 5.4
  million/microliter for males and 4.8 million for
  females.

30
Hormonal Control of Red Blood Cell Production

• A negative feedback loop stabilizes the red blood
  cell count.
• The kidneys monitor oxygen content of the blood
  when it drops too low, the kidneys secrete
  erythropoietin.
• Erythropoietin stimulates bone marrow to produce
  more red blood cells this increases the ability
  of the blood to carry oxygen.
• As oxygen levels rise, the information feeds back
  to the kidneys, which stop secreting
  erythropoietin.

31
Kidney
Erythropoietin
The kidneys detect reduced O2 in the blood.
When less O2 is delivered to the kidneys, they
secrete the hormone erythropoietin into the blood.
Reduced oxygen in blood
Developing red blood cells in red bone marrow
Erythropoietin stimulates production of red blood
cells in bone marrow.
Relieves
The additional circulating RBCs increase O2
carried in blood.
Increased oxygen in blood
The increased O2 relieves the initial stimulus
that triggered erythropoietin secretion.
RBCs
Fig. 8.4, p.147
32
Section 4

• Blood Types Genetically Different Red Blood
  Cells

33
Blood Types Genetically Different Red Blood
Cells

• All cells of the human body have surface proteins
  and other molecules that serve as self
  identification markers.
• Any protein marker that prompts a defensive
  action is called an antigen.
• The human body produces antibodies that recognize
  markers on foreign cells as nonself and
  stimulate immune reactions.

34
Blood Types Genetically Different Red Blood
Cells

• The ABO group of blood types includes key self
  markers on red blood cells.
• ABO blood groups are based on glycoprotein
  surface markers on red blood cells.
• Type A has A markers type B has B markers.
• Type AB has both markers type O has neither
  marker.
• Depending on ABO blood type, the body will also
  possess antibodies to other blood types ABO
  blood typing is done to prevent incompatible
  blood types from being mixed.

35
Blood Types Genetically Different Red Blood
Cells

• Mixing incompatible blood types can cause the
  clumping called agglutination.
• Type A blood types do not have antibodies against
  A markers, but they do have antibodies to type B
  Type B blood types do not have type B antibodies,
  but they do have type A antibodies, etc.
• A type A person cannot donate blood to a type B
  person because they are incompatible.
• When mixed, markers on the surface of red blood
  cells (not just the ABO markers) that do not
  match will cause the blood cells to undergo
  agglutination, a defense response where the blood
  cells clump.

36
Table 8.1, p.148
37
Table 8.2, p.151
38
Blood Types Genetically Different Red Blood
Cells

• Clumped cells can clog small blood vessels,
  damage tissues, and cause death.

incompatible blood cells
compatible blood cells
Fig. 8.5b, p. 149
39
Fig. 8.5a, p.149
Donor type B blood
Recipient with type A blood
Antigen A
Antigen B
Antibody to type A blood
Antibody to type B blood
Red blood cells from donor agglutinated by
antibodies in recipients blood
Red blood cells usually burst
Clumping blocks blood flow in capillaries
Side effects disrupt kidney function
Oxygen and nutrient flow to cells and tissues is
reduced
40
Fig. 8.5a, p.149
Red blood cells from donor agglutinated by
antibodies in recipients blood
Red blood cells usually burst
Clumping blocks blood flow in capillaries
Side effects disrupt kidney function
Oxygen and nutrient flow to cells and tissues is
reduced
Stepped Art
41
Useful References for Section 4

• The latest references for topics covered in this
  section can be found at the book companion
  website. Log in to the books e-resources page at
  www.thomsonedu.com to access InfoTrac articles.
• InfoTrac Babies Accept Hearts with All Blood
  Types. UPI NewsTrack, April 5, 2005.

42
Section 5

• Rh Blood Typing

43
Rh Blood Typing

• Rh blood typing looks for an Rh marker.
• Rh blood typing looks for the presence (Rh) or
  absence (Rh-) of antigen on red blood cells.
• An Rh- person transfused with Rh blood will
  produce antibodies to the Rh marker.

44
Rh Blood Typing

• An Rh- mother who bears an Rh child can also
  become sensitized to the Rh antigen secondary
  children may be at risk from maternal antibodies.
• In hemolytic disease of the newborn, too many
  cells may be destroyed and the fetus dies.
• Medical treatment (RhoGam) given to the mother
  after the birth of the first Rh baby can
  inactivate the Rh antibodies.

45
Rh Blood Typing

• There are also many other markers on red blood
  cells.
• Hundreds of different blood cell markers are
  known most are widely scattered in the human
  population.
• To avoid problems with transfusions, blood
  undergoes cross-matching to exclude incompatible
  blood types from being used.

46
Useful References for Section 5

• The latest references for topics covered in this
  section can be found at the book companion
  website. Log in to the books e-resources page at
  www.thomsonedu.com to access InfoTrac articles.
• InfoTrac Rh Disease Its Still a Threat.
  Contemporary OB/GYN, May 2004.

47
Section 6

• New Frontiers of Blood Typing

48
New Frontiers of Blood Typing

• Blood DNA Investigating crimes and identifying
  mom or dad.
• Blood cell markers can be used to compare
  evidence from crime scenes to samples taken from
  possible perpetrators.
• Because blood groups are determined by genes,
  they are a useful source of information about a
  persons genetic heritage.
• Blood typing can also be used to help determine
  the identity of a childs father or mother.

49
New Frontiers of Blood Typing

• For safetys sake, some people bank their own
  blood.
• Even with screening, blood transfusions still
  carry the risk of being incompatible or
  potentially contaminated with infectious agents.
• In autologous transfusions, individuals
  pre-donate blood to
• themselves prior
• to surgeries in case
• transfusion is needed.

Figure 8.7
50
New Frontiers of Blood Typing

• Blood substitutes must also avoid sparking an
  immune response.
• Blood substitutes have potential uses in
  situations where it is not feasible to perfectly
  match blood, such as in an ambulance or on the
  battlefield.
• To date, however, substitutes have
• been difficult to manufacture OxygentTM is an
  oxygen carrier
• that has currently reached the final
• stages of clinical trials.

51
Useful References for Section 6

• The latest references for topics covered in this
  section can be found at the book companion
  website. Log in to the books e-resources page at
  www.thomsonedu.com to access InfoTrac articles.
• InfoTrac Autologous Blood Transfusion A Safer
  Way of Transfusion. GP, Feb. 24, 2006.

52
Section 7

• Hemostasis and Blood Clotting

53
Hemostasis and Blood Clotting

• Hemostasis prevents blood loss.
• Hemostasis is the process that stops bleeding to
  prevent excess loss of blood.
• Spasms of the smooth muscle in the damaged blood
  vessel stop blood flow for a few minutes by
  constriction of the vessel.
• Platelets clump to plug the rupture they then
  release serotonin and other chemicals to prolong
  the spasm and attract more platelets.
• Finally, the blood coagulates to form the clot.
• Hemostasis can only seal tears and punctures that
  are relatively small.

54
Fig. 8.8, p.152
Platelets stick to collagen fibers of damaged
vessel wall
Injury to blood vessel
Wall of vessel contracts
More permanent clot forms
Platelet plug
Blood flow decreases
Blood flow
Blood flow decreases
Blood flow ceases
Prothrombin
Damaged cells and platelets release substances
that activate clotting factors
Ca2
Prothrombin activator
Fibrinogen
Ca2
Thrombin
Fibrin threads (clot)
55
Hemostasis and Blood Clotting

• Factors in blood are one trigger for blood
  clotting.
• In the intrinsic clotting mechanism, internal
  damage activates a plasma protein (factor X)
  that triggers the formation of thrombin.
• Thrombin acts on fibrinogen to form insoluble
  threads of fibrin that will entrap blood cells
  and platelets to form a clot.

56
Hemostasis and Blood Clotting

• Factors from damaged tissue also can cause a clot
  to form.
• In the extrinsic clotting mechanism, blood
  clotting is triggered by the release of
  substances outside the blood itself due to damage
  there the pathway is similar to the intrinsic
  mechanism.

Figure 8.8
57
Hemostasis and Blood Clotting

• Clots that form in unbroken vessels can be
  life-threatening.
• A clot that stays where it forms is called a
  thrombus one that breaks free and moves is
  called an embolus.
• A stroke occurs when an embolus blocks flow to
  some part of the brain.
• Hemophilia is a genetic disorder where clotting
  factors are absent from the blood so it does not
  clot properly.

58
Fig. 8.9, p.153
Damage to skin
Epidermis
Dermis
Blood clot
Blood vessels
Neutrophils defensive WBCs)
59
Fig. 8.9, p.153
Scab
Regenerating epithelium
Collagen fiber
Blood vessel
Collagen fiber
60
Useful References for Section 7

• The latest references for topics covered in this
  section can be found at the book companion
  website. Log in to the books e-resources page at
  www.thomsonedu.com to access InfoTrac articles.
• American Academy of Family Physicians
  Hypercoagulation
• InfoTrac Factor V Leiden as a Common Genetic
  Risk Factor for Venous Thromboembolism. Journal
  of Nursing Scholarship, Spring 2006.

61
Section 8

• Blood Disorders

62
Blood Disorders

• Anemias are red blood cell disorders.
• Anemias develop when red blood cells deliver too
  little oxygen to the tissues.
• Two types result from nutrient deficiencies
• In iron-deficiency anemia, red cells contain too
  little hemoglobin, usually resulting from an
  iron-poor diet.
• Pernicious anemia is caused by a deficiency of
  folic acid or vitamin B12.
• Aplastic anemia results from a destruction of the
  red bone marrow and its stem cells.

63
Blood Disorders

• Hemolytic anemias are
• caused by the premature
• destruction of red blood cells.
• Sickle cell anemia, a genetic
• disease, is one cause.
• Malaria is a major cause of
• hemolytic anemia and follows
• infection by a protozoan
• transmitted by mosquitoes.
• In thalassemia, individuals produce abnormal
  hemoglobin.

Figure 8.10
64
Fig. 8.10, p.154
65
Fig. 8.10, p.154
66
Blood Disorders

• Carbon monoxide poisoning prevents hemoglobin
  from binding oxygen.
• Carbon monoxide (CO) is a colorless, odorless gas
  present in auto exhaust fumes and smoke from
  wood, coal, charcoal, and tobacco.
• CO binds to hemoglobin 200 times more tightly
  than oxygen, thus blocking oxygen transport to
  tissues.

67
Blood Disorders

• Mononucleosis and leukemias affect white blood
  cells.
• Infectious mononucleosis is caused by the
  Epstein-Barr virus, which triggers overproduction
  of lymphocytes.
• Leukemias are very serious cancers in which there
  is an overproduction of white blood cells and
  destruction of bone marrow chronic myelogenous
  leukemia is one type.

68
Fig. 8.11, p.154
69
Blood Disorders

• Other viral infections, such as HIV (the human
  immunodeficiency virus), can also harm or destroy
  white blood cells.
• Toxins can destroy blood cells or poison the
  blood in other ways.
• Septicemia can occur when bacteria release toxins
  into the blood Staphylococcus aureus (Staph A)
  is one important example.
• Toxemia happens when metabolic poisons accumulate
  in the body toxemia can occur if the kidneys do
  not adequately filter the blood and remove these
  poisons.

70
Video Global AIDS

• This video clip is available in CNN Today Videos
  for Biology, 2003, Volume VII. Instructors,
  contact your local sales representative to order
  this volume, while supplies last.

71
Useful References for Section 8

• The latest references for topics covered in this
  section can be found at the book companion
  website. Log in to the books e-resources page at
  www.thomsonedu.com to access InfoTrac articles.
• Leukemia Lymphoma Society
• National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute Blood
  Diseases and Resources Information
• InfoTrac When Mono Strikes. Nina M. Riccio.
  Current Health 2, March 2000.
• InfoTrac Anemia That Run-Down Feeling. Shiela
  Globus. Current Health 2, Mar. 1999.