Critical Thinking Lecture 7 Clear Thinking and Clear Writing

1
Critical ThinkingLecture 7Clear Thinking and
Clear Writing

• By David Kelsey

2
Guidelines

• Here are some general guidelines for writing a
  philosophy paper
• 1. Your philosophy paper will make an argument.
• 2. The philosophy paper you will write in this
  course will be of 2 kinds
• a. The positive approach
• b. The negative approach

3
Keep it modest starting the writing process

• 3. Keep the scope of your paper modest.
• 4. How do you start the paper writing process?
• Read and think about it
• Work backwards

4
Start early be simple

• 5. Start the paper early, at least a few weeks in
  advance of the due date.
• Finding your thoughts on a subject can be
  difficult.
• 6. Be Simple
• Simple straightforward prose

5
Make the structure obvious and Be concise yet
fully explain

• 7. Make the structure of your paper obvious
• 8. Be concise yet fully explain
• Cover one or two small points but do fully
  explore them

6
Chuck out whats unnecessary

• 9. Chuck out unnecessary paragraphs
• Each paragraph should be necessary in making your
  argument
• Each sentence should be a necessary part of its
  paragraph
• Each word should be a necessary part of its
  sentence

7
Avoid vagueness and ambiguity, anticipate
objections editing your draft

• 10. Avoid vagueness and ambiguity.
• 11. Anticipate objectionsImagine the reader of
  your paper is a devils advocate in the worst
  kind of way.
• 12. Read and re-read your draft

8
Vagueness

• A vague statement is one whose meaning is
  indistinct, imprecise or lacks details.
• Degrees Vagueness isnt all or nothing. It
  comes in degrees.
• Apartment example

9
Clarifying vagueness

• Desirable vagueness sometimes vagueness is
  actually desirable.
• Being Romantic
• Clarify If we come across a vague statement we
  can simply try to clarify the lack of detail or
  indistinct-ness.
• Job example

10
Vagueness and Propositions

• A vague statement
• it is unclear what proposition the sentence
  asserts at all.
• It could be any one of a number of propositions

11
Ambiguous Claims

• An ambiguous claim is one that is subject to more
  than one interpretation.
• Claim x
• ? ?
• P1 P2

12
Semantic Ambiguity

• A sentence that is semantically ambiguous is one
  which contains an ambiguous word or phrase.
• For example

• Fixing the ambiguous word

13
Syntactic Ambiguity

• A sentence is syntactically ambiguous when it is
  ambiguous because of its grammar or the way it
  has been structured or put together.

• When you have come across a semantic ambiguity
  you can simply alter the grammar
• Or you might need to re-write the claim
  altogether.

14
Grouping Ambiguity

• Grouping ambiguity
• unclear whether some word in the sentence is
  referring to a group or an individual.
• Secretaries and Physicians
• Lawnmowers and dirt bikes

15
Composition and Division

• The fallacy of Division
• When we think that what is true of a group of
  things taken collectively is automatically true
  of the same things taken individually.
• The Giants example

• The fallacy of Composition
• When we think that what holds for a group of
  things individually holds automatically for the
  entire collective group.
• The Patriots example

16
Stipulating Definitions

• Stipulating definitions
• Terms are used that we dont fully understand.
• A term used is unusual or unfamiliar.
• A brand new word
• A familiar word is being used in a new way

17
Precising Definitions

• Precising definitions
• Used to reduce vagueness or to eliminate
  ambiguity.
• Some examples
• Justice
• Permissible

18
Definitionsby Example by synonym

• Definition by example
• We define a term by example when we point to,
  name or describe one or more examples of
  something to which the defined term applies.
• Definition by synonym
• We define a term by synonym when we give another
  word or phrase that means the same thing as the
  term being defined.
• Bachelors example

19
Analytical Definitions their form

• An Analytical definition is composed of a
  definiendum and a definiens.
• The definiendum
• The definiens
• Form the form of a definition is this
• X df _____
• Which is the definiendum and which is the
  definiens?
• For example,
• Knowledge df true belief

20
Necessary andsufficient conditions

• We can think of a definition as a set of
  necessary and sufficient conditions.
• X is a necessary condition of Y if and only if
  (or iff) we cannot have Y without also having X.
• Oxygen and Combustion
• X is a sufficient condition of Y iff X is all
  that is needed to get Y.
• Being born in the US and citizenship

21
Necessary and Sufficient Conditions 2

• X is both a necessary and sufficient condition of
  Y iff both
• 1) we cannot have Y without also having X
• 2) X is all that is needed to get Y.
• Knowledge is JTB

22
Correct Definitions

• For a definition to be adequate the definiendum
  and definiens must be co-extensive.
• For the defiendum and definiens of any definition
  to be co-extensive it must be the case that
• 1)
• 2)
• What is the extension of a concept?

23
Co-extensivenessAn example

• So if your definition of KNOWLEDGE as TRUE BELIEF
  is correct then
• Everything in the extension of KNOWLEDGE is in
  the extension of TRUE BELIEF and vice versa.

24
Testing definitions

• To determine if a definition is adequate
• determine if its definiendum and definiens are
  co-extensive.
• Is there any item in the extension of one that
  isnt in the extension of the other?
• Example Knowledge is true belief
• All Knowledge is true belief.
• All true belief is knowledge.
• Universal generalizations and counterexamples

25
Counterexamples

• A counterexample a case that violates a
  universal generalization.
• If we define knowledge as true belief we just
  need one counterexample to show this definition
  inadequate.
• We need to find a case of knowledge that isnt
  what?
• Or a case of true belief that isnt what?
• A counterexample
• The Belief Game

26
Counterexamples 2

• Love Say I define Love as a deep seated feeling
  composed of compassion care which one can have
  for another human being.
• Can anyone find a counterexample to this
  definition?
• We are looking for either
• a case of love that isnt ____________
• a case of having this feeling for another human
  which isnt ______________
• Any thoughts?