Chapter 8: Deformation

1
Chapter 8 Deformation Strengthening
Mechanisms
ISSUES TO ADDRESS...
Why are the number of dislocations present
greatest in metals ?
How are strength and dislocation motion
related?
Why does heating alter strength and other
properties?
2
Dislocations Materials Classes
3
Dislocation Motion

• Dislocation motion plastic deformation
• Metals - plastic deformation occurs by slip an
  edge dislocation (extra half-plane of atoms)
  slides over adjacent plane half-planes of atoms.

Adapted from Fig. 8.1, Callister Rethwisch 3e.

• If dislocations can't move, plastic
  deformation doesn't occur!

4
Dislocation Motion

• A dislocation moves along a slip plane in a slip
  direction perpendicular to the dislocation line
• The slip direction is the same as the Burgers
  vector direction

Edge dislocation
Adapted from Fig. 8.2, Callister Rethwisch 3e.
Screw dislocation
5
Deformation Mechanisms

• Slip System
• Slip plane - plane on which easiest slippage
  occurs
• Highest planar densities (and large interplanar
  spacings)
• Slip directions - directions of movement
• Highest linear densities

• For BCC HCP there are other slip systems.

6
Stress and Dislocation Motion

• Resolved shear stress, tR
• results from applied tensile stresses

7
Critical Resolved Shear Stress
Condition for dislocation motion
Ease of dislocation motion depends on
crystallographic orientation
? maximum at ? ? 45º
8
Single Crystal Slip
Adapted from Fig. 8.9, Callister Rethwisch 3e.
Adapted from Fig. 8.8, Callister Rethwisch 3e.
9
Ex Deformation of single crystal
a) Will the single crystal yield? b) If not,
what stress is needed?
? 60
?crss 20.7 MPa
? 35
Adapted from Fig. 8.7, Callister Rethwisch 3e.
? 6500 psi

• So the applied stress of 6500 psi will not cause
  the crystal to yield.

10
Ex Deformation of single crystal
What stress is necessary (i.e., what is the
yield stress, sy)?
11
Slip Motion in Polycrystals
Stronger - grain boundaries pin
deformations Slip planes directions (l,
f) change from one crystal to another. tR
will vary from one crystal to another.
The crystal with the largest tR yields
first. Other (less favorably oriented)
crystals yield later.
Adapted from Fig. 8.10, Callister Rethwisch
3e. (Fig. 8.10 is courtesy of C. Brady, National
Bureau of Standards now the National Institute
of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, MD.)
12
Anisotropy in sy
Can be induced by rolling a polycrystalline
metal
- before rolling
Adapted from Fig. 8.11, Callister Rethwisch
3e. (Fig. 8.11 is from W.G. Moffatt, G.W.
Pearsall, and J. Wulff, The Structure and
Properties of Materials, Vol. I, Structure, p.
140, John Wiley and Sons, New York, 1964.)
235 mm
- isotropic since grains are approx.
spherical randomly oriented.
13
Anisotropy in Deformation
side view
14
4 Strategies for Strengthening Metals 1
Reduce Grain Size
Grain boundaries are barriers to slip.
Barrier "strength" increases with
Increasing angle of misorientation.
Smaller grain size more barriers to
slip. Hall-Petch Equation
Adapted from Fig. 8.14, Callister Rethwisch 3e.
(Fig. 8.14 is from A Textbook of Materials
Technology, by Van Vlack, Pearson Education,
Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ.)
15
4 Strategies for Strengthening Metals 2
Solid Solutions
Impurity atoms distort the lattice generate
stress. Stress can produce a barrier to
dislocation motion.
16
Stress Concentration at Dislocations
Adapted from Fig. 8.4, Callister Rethwisch 3e.
17
Strengthening by Alloying

• small impurities tend to concentrate at
  dislocations
• reduce mobility of dislocation ? increase
  strength

Adapted from Fig. 8.17, Callister Rethwisch 3e.
18
Strengthening by Alloying

• large impurities concentrate at dislocations on
  low density side

Adapted from Fig. 8.18, Callister Rethwisch 3e.
19
Ex Solid SolutionStrengthening in Copper
Tensile strength yield strength increase
with wt Ni.
Adapted from Fig. 8.16 (a) and (b), Callister
Rethwisch 3e.
Empirical relation
Alloying increases sy and TS.
20
4 Strategies for Strengthening Metals 3
Precipitation Strengthening
Hard precipitates are difficult to shear.
Ex Ceramics in metals (SiC in Iron or Aluminum).
Large shear stress needed
to move dislocation toward
precipitate and shear it.
Dislocation
advances but
precipitates act as
pinning sites with
S
.
spacing
Result
21
Application Precipitation Strengthening
Internal wing structure on Boeing 767
Adapted from chapter-opening photograph, Chapter
11, Callister Rethwisch 3e. (courtesy of G.H.
Narayanan and A.G. Miller, Boeing Commercial
Airplane Company.)
Aluminum is strengthened with precipitates
formed by alloying.
Adapted from chapter-opening photograph, Chapter
11, Callister Rethwisch 3e. (courtesy of G.H.
Narayanan and A.G. Miller, Boeing Commercial
Airplane Company.)
22
4 Strategies for Strengthening Metals 4 Cold
Work (CW)
Room temperature deformation. Common
forming operations change the cross
sectional area
23
Dislocations During Cold Work
Ti alloy after cold working
Dislocations entangle with one another
during cold work. Dislocation motion
becomes more difficult.
Adapted from Fig. 5.11, Callister Rethwisch 3e.
(Fig. 5.11 is courtesy of M.R. Plichta, Michigan
Technological University.)
24
Result of Cold Work

• Dislocation density
• Carefully grown single crystal
• ? ca. 103 mm-2
• Deforming sample increases density
• ? 109-1010 mm-2
• Heat treatment reduces density
• ? 105-106 mm-2

Yield stress increases as rd increases
25
Effects of Stress at Dislocations
Adapted from Fig. 8.5, Callister Rethwisch 3e.
26
Impact of Cold Work
As cold work is increased
Yield strength (sy) increases.
Tensile strength (TS) increases.
Ductility (EL or AR) decreases.
Adapted from Fig. 8.20, Callister Rethwisch 3e.
27
Cold Work Analysis
What is the tensile strength ductility
after cold working?
Adapted from Fig. 8.19, Callister Rethwisch 3e.
(Fig. 8.19 is adapted from Metals Handbook
Properties and Selection Iron and Steels, Vol.
1, 9th ed., B. Bardes (Ed.), American Society for
Metals, 1978, p. 226 and Metals Handbook
Properties and Selection Nonferrous Alloys and
Pure Metals, Vol. 2, 9th ed., H. Baker (Managing
Ed.), American Society for Metals, 1979, p. 276
and 327.)
28
s- e Behavior vs. Temperature
Results for polycrystalline iron
Adapted from Fig. 7.14, Callister Rethwisch 3e.
sy and TS decrease with increasing test
temperature. EL increases with increasing
test temperature. Why? Vacancies help
dislocations move past obstacles.
29
Effect of Heating After CW
1 hour treatment at Tanneal...
decreases TS and increases EL. Effects of
cold work are reversed!
3 Annealing stages to discuss...
Adapted from Fig. 8.22, Callister Rethwisch 3e.
(Fig. 8.22 is adapted from G. Sachs and K.R. van
Horn, Practical Metallurgy, Applied Metallurgy,
and the Industrial Processing of Ferrous and
Nonferrous Metals and Alloys, American Society
for Metals, 1940, p. 139.)
30
Recovery
Annihilation reduces dislocation density.
Scenario 2

31
Recrystallization
New grains are formed that -- have a
small dislocation density -- are small --
consume cold-worked grains.
Adapted from Fig. 8.21 (a),(b), Callister
Rethwisch 3e. (Fig. 8.21 (a),(b) are courtesy of
J.E. Burke, General Electric Company.)
32
Further Recrystallization
All cold-worked grains are consumed.
Adapted from Fig. 8.21 (c),(d), Callister
Rethwisch 3e. (Fig. 8.21 (c),(d) are courtesy of
J.E. Burke, General Electric Company.)
33
Grain Growth
At longer times, larger grains consume smaller
ones. Why? Grain boundary area (and
therefore energy) is reduced.
Adapted from Fig. 8.21 (d),(e), Callister
Rethwisch 3e. (Fig. 8.21 (d),(e) are courtesy of
J.E. Burke, General Electric Company.)
34
TR recrystallization temperature
Adapted from Fig. 8.22, Callister Rethwisch 3e.
35
Recrystallization Temperature, TR

• TR recrystallization temperature point of
  highest rate of property change
• Tm gt TR ? 0.3-0.6 Tm (K)
• Due to diffusion ? annealing time? TR f(time)
  shorter annealing time gt higher TR
• Higher CW gt lower TR strain hardening
• Pure metals lower TR due to dislocation movements
• Easier to move in pure metals gt lower TR

36
Coldwork Calculations

• A cylindrical rod of brass originally 0.40 in
  (10.2 mm) in diameter is to be cold worked by
  drawing. The circular cross section will be
  maintained during deformation. A cold-worked
  tensile strength in excess of 55,000 psi (380
  MPa) and a ductility of at least 15 EL are
  desired. Further more, the final diameter must
  be 0.30 in (7.6 mm). Explain how this may be
  accomplished.

37
Coldwork Calculations Solution

• If we directly draw to the final diameter what
  happens?

38
Coldwork Calc Solution Cont.
Adapted from Fig. 8.19, Callister Rethwisch 3e.

• For CW 43.8

• ?y 420 MPa

• TS 540 MPa gt 380 MPa

• EL 6 lt 15

• This doesnt satisfy criteria what can we do?

39
Coldwork Calc Solution Cont.
Adapted from Fig. 8.19, Callister Rethwisch 3e.
For TS gt 380 MPa
For EL gt 15
? our working range is limited to CW 12-27
40
Coldwork Calc Soln Recrystallization

• Cold draw-anneal-cold draw again
• For objective we need a cold work of CW ? 12-27
• Well use CW 20
• Diameter after first cold draw (before 2nd cold
  draw)?
• must be calculated as follows

41
Coldwork Calculations Solution

• Summary
• Cold work D01 0.40 in ? Df1 0.335
  m
• Anneal above D02 Df1
• Cold work D02 0.335 in ? Df 2 0.30 m
• Therefore, meets all requirements

Fig 7.19
?
42
Rate of Recrystallization

• Hot work ? above TR
• Cold work ? below TR
• Smaller grains
• stronger at low temperature
• weaker at high temperature

43
Mechanical Properties of Polymers
Stress-Strain Behavior
brittle polymer
plastic
elastomer
elastic moduli less than for metals
Adapted from Fig. 7.22, Callister Rethwisch 3e.

Fracture strengths of polymers 10 of those
for metals
Deformation strains for polymers gt 1000
for most metals, deformation strains lt 10
43
44
Mechanisms of DeformationBrittle Crosslinked and
Network Polymers
s
(MPa)
brittle failure
x
Initial
plastic failure
x
e
aligned, crosslinked polymer
Stress-strain curves adapted from Fig. 7.22,
Callister Rethwisch 3e.
44
45
Mechanisms of Deformation Semicrystalline
(Plastic) Polymers
s
(MPa)
brittle failure
x
Stress-strain curves adapted from Fig. 7.22,
Callister Rethwisch 3e. Inset figures along
plastic response curve adapted from Figs. 8.27
8.28, Callister Rethwisch 3e. (Figs. 8.27
8.28 are from J.M. Schultz, Polymer Materials
Science, Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1974, pp. 500-501.)
onset of
necking
plastic failure
x
unload/reload
e

45
46
Predeformation by Drawing
Drawing(ex monofilament fishline) --
stretches the polymer prior to use -- aligns
chains in the stretching direction Results of
drawing -- increases the elastic modulus (E)
in the stretching direction --
increases the tensile strength (TS) in the
stretching direction -- decreases ductility
(EL) Annealing after drawing... --
decreases chain alignment -- reverses effects
of drawing (reduces E and TS, enhances
EL) Contrast to effects of cold working in
metals!
Adapted from Fig. 8.28, Callister Rethwisch 3e.
(Fig. 8.28 is from J.M. Schultz, Polymer
Materials Science, Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1974, pp.
500-501.)
46
47
Mechanisms of DeformationElastomers
s
(MPa)
brittle failure
x
Stress-strain curves adapted from Fig. 7.22,
Callister Rethwisch 3e. Inset figures along
elastomer curve (green) adapted from Fig. 8.30,
Callister Rethwisch 3e. (Fig. 8.30 is from
Z.D. Jastrzebski, The Nature and Properties of
Engineering Materials, 3rd ed., John Wiley and
Sons, 1987.)
plastic failure
x
x
elastomer
e
Compare elastic behavior of elastomers with
the -- brittle behavior (of aligned,
crosslinked network polymers), and --
plastic behavior (of semicrystalline polymers)
(as shown on previous slides)
47
48
Summary
Dislocations are observed primarily in metals
and alloys.
Strength is increased by making dislocation
motion difficult.
Particular ways to increase strength are to
-- decrease grain size -- solid solution
strengthening -- precipitate strengthening
-- cold work
Heating (annealing) can reduce dislocation
density and increase grain size. This
decreases the strength.