BY ALEX COLEMAN

1
APHG REVIEW BOOK IN A NUTSHELL

• BY ALEX COLEMAN

2
CENTRAL PLACE THEORY

• Developed by Walter Christaller
• Saw the economic world as a spatial model
• City location and the level of economic exchange
  could be analyzed using central places within
  hexagons which overlapped

3
ARITHMETIC DENSITY

• Number of things per square unit of distance.

4
AGRICULTURAL DENSITY

• Number of people per square unit of land actively
  under cultivation.

5
DIFFUSION PATTERNS

• Expansion
• Originates in a central places and expands
  outward.
• Hierarchal
• Originates in a first-order location then moves
  down to second-order locations and then locally.
• Relocation
• Begins at a point of origin then crosses physical
  barrier.
• Contagious
• Begins at point of origin then moves outward to
  nearby locations
• Stimulus
• Underlying principle diffuses

6
MAP TYPES

• Topographic
• Contour lines of elevation
• Thematic
• Expresses particular subject with no land forms
• Chloropleth
• Uses color to show different geography
• Isoline
• Calculate data values between two points
• Dot Density
• Uses dots to show volume and density
• Flow Line
• Uses lines of different thickness to show
  movement
• Cartograms
• Uses simple geometric shapes to represent places

7
DEMOGRAPHIC TRANSITION MODEL

• Theory of how population changes over time (has
  predictive capability)
• Stage 1
• Subsistence farming, migration for food,
  livestock
• High BR and DR
• Sierra Leone, Liberia, Botswana
• Stage 2
• Agricultural base for trade
• RNI goes up significantly
• BR high DR down
• Ghana and Nepal

8
DEMOGRAPHIC TRANSITION MODEL (CNTD)

• Stage 2 ½
• New industrial country
• Manufacturing begins
• BR down DR down
• Mexico and Malaysia
• Stage 3
• Transition to full manufacturing
• Most First World Countries
• BR down DR down because of services
• China and Brazil
• Stage 4
• Service based
• BR and DR as low as possible
• Zero population growth
• Canada, the United Kingdom, and the United States

9
MALTHUSIAN THEORY

• Global population would exceed food production
• Didnt happen because of agricultural revolutions
• Neo- Malthusians
• Sustainability may be problems keeping up in the
  long-run
• Increasing per capita demand the amount of food
  per person has gone of greatly
• Natural resource depletion nonrenewables will
  run out like wood, minerals, and energy

10
POPULATION PYRAMIDS

• Population structures based on ages
• Shapes
• Triangle
• Fast growing
• Extended Triangle
• Moderate growth
• Column
• Slow growth
• Reduced pentagon
• Shrinking
• Gaps
• War
• Older on top

11
VON THUNENS MODEL OF THE ISOLATED STATE
12
LAND RENT CURVE
13
CENTRAL PLACE THEORY
14
CONCENTRIC ZONE MODEL
15
SECTOR MODEL
16
MULTIPLE-NUCLEI MODEL
17
GALATIC CITY MODEL
18
LATIN AMERICAN CITY MODEL
19
GRAVITY MODEL

• Mathematical model that is used in a number of
  different types of spatial analysis.
• Used to calculate transportation flow between two
  points.
• Determine the area of influence of a citys
  business
• Estimate the flow of migrants to a particular
  place
• Location1 Population x Location 2
  Population/Distance²

20
GIS, GPS, AND REMOTE SENSING

• GIS
• Data layers that show different geographic
  features
• GPS
• Uses satellites to show your position on Earth
• Remote Sensing
• Arial photography used for GIS.

21
BIRTH RATE

• Total number of infants born living counted in a
  year
• Live births/ (Population/1000)
• Higher birth rates in LDCs
• Lower birth rates in MDCs

22
DEATH RATE

• The number of deaths per year divided by 1000.
• Deaths/(Population/1000)
• High death rates in LDCs
• Low death rates in MDCs
• Advances in technology have increased life
  expectancy

23
RATE OF NATURAL INCREASE (RNI)

• Difference in the amount of population change
• BR-DR/10
• Possible to be negative

24
DOUBLING TIME

• How long it would take for a country to double in
  size
• 70/RNI

25
NET MIGRATION RATE

• Total migration
• (Number of Immigrants/(Population/1000))-(Number
  of Emigrants/(Population/1000))
• Can be negative

26
THE DEMOGRAPHIC EQUATION

• ((BR-DR)NMR)/10 Percentage Rate

27
TOTAL FERTILITY RATE

• Average number of children born to each woman age
  15 to 45
• Number of children/Number of women

28
CENTROID

• Geographic center of a country

29
MIGRATION

• Inter-regional or internal
• One region of a country to another
• Transnational
• One country to another
• Step migration
• People move up in hierarchy of location for work
  or other reasons
• Chain migration
• Pioneers establish a new place which is a
  foothold for more migration
• Periodic movement
• Annual or seasonal movement
• Push factors
• War
• Environmental hazards
• High cost of land
• Pull factors
• Employment
• Services

30
LANGUAGE

• Linguistic region
• A place where a language is spoken
• Can have different dialects within the region
• Lingua franca
• Bridge language like English or French

31
ANATOLIAN VS. KURGAN THEORY

• Anatolian
• Group of Indians migrated from India to Turkey
  and brought their language and then to Europe
• Kurgan
• Group of Indians went from India to Central Asia
  then across the Eurasian steppe to Western Europe.

32
RELIGION

• Universalizing religions accept
• Accept followers from everywhere
• Ethnic religions
• Only from specific ethnic groups
• Animist
• Voodoo, Native American
• Worship nature
• Migration
• Hindu-Buddhist
• Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism
• Reincarnation
• Hindus caste system, Buddhists oppose the caste
• Abrahamic
• Judaism, Christianity, and Islam
• Believe in God to a certain degree
• Common ancestors of Abraham
• Jesus Christ was a figurehead
• Islam Five Pillars got them to Heaven

33
NATION AND ETHNICITY

• Nation
• Population represented by a single characteristic
• Culture group is another name
• Ethnicity
• Genetic heritage and political allegiance
• Race
• Genetic heritage and physical characteristics

34
ENVIRONMENTAL DETERMINISM

• Friedrich Ratzel
• The physical geography shapes the culture

35
POSSIBILISM

• Carl Saur
• Cultures were partially shaped by the environment

36
INTERNAL VS. EXTERNAL INDENTITY

• Internal
• Expressing cultural heritage within the area it
  originated
• External
• Expressing culture where they do not share the
  common culture or geographic background

37
CULTURAL REGIONS

• Homogeneous characteristics of culture in an area

38
CULTURAL HEARTHS

• Origin of a given culture
• Nile River
• Mesopotamia
• The Indus Valley
• Mesoamerica
• The Andean Highland
• Northeast Chile
• West Africa

39
SEQUENT OCCUPANCE

• Replacing dominant cultures over time
• Lagos, Nigeria going from British control to
  Nigerian

40
ACCULTURATION

• Fully adopting the culture of the dominant
  population

41
CULTURAL GLOBALIZATION

• Media has combined cultures so much that the
  cultures have lost their connection to their
  heritage and to nature

42
ETHNIC AND RELIGIOUS CONFLICTS

• Ethnic cleansing
• People of one ethnic group are eliminated by
  another
• Yugoslavian Croats and Serbs
• Genocide
• Large scale systematic killing of people of one
  ethnic group
• Holocaust
• Darfur
• Rwanda

43
UNITS OF POLITICAL ORGANIZATION

• Country
• An identifiable land area
• Nation
• A population with a single culture
• State
• A population under a single government
• Nation-state
• Single culture under a single government
• Japan, Iceland, Ireland

44
NATIONALISM

• Existing culture group that desires political
  representation or independence

45
STATELESS NATION

• Culture group is not included or allowed to share
  in the state political process
• Kurds in Iraq, Iran, and Syria
• Basques in northern Spain
• Hmong in Laos, Vietnam, Thailand, and southern
  China

46
CONFEDERATION

• Several smaller states make up a federal
  government
• US, Australia, Brazil, Russia

47
MICROSTATES

• Sovereign states that are smaller but hold the
  same position of larger states
• Dominica, Luxembourg, Malta, Singapore

48
MULTI-STATE NATIONS

• Supernationalism
• Two or more states align together for a common
  purpose
• UN, WTO, WHO, EU, NATO, OPEC, NAFTA

49
THE EUROPEAN UNION

• Free trade union
• Open borders
• Uniform currency
• One court for international issues
• One parliament
• Worlds largest economy
• Constitution is not yet ratified

50
ENCLAVES AND EXCLAVES

• Enclave
• The minority group concentrated inside another
  country
• Ethnic neighborhood in Quebec
• Exclave
• Fragmented piece of sovereign territory separated
  by land from the main part of the country
• Alaska

51
WATER BORDERS AT SEA

• Territorial sea
• 12 nautical-mile limit to sovereignty
• Exclusive Economic Zone
• Given country only allowed to exploit
  economically within 200 miles
• High Seas
• Outside of 12 mile limit

52
BORDER TYPES

• Physical
• Natural borders like rivers or mountains
• Cultural
• Estimated boundaries between people groups
• Geometric
• Surveyed along lines of latitude and longitude

53
BORDER CONFLICTS

• Frontier
• Open and undefined territory
• Peaceful Resolutions
• 1846 Oregon Treaty, Louisiana Purchase 1804
• Post-colonial boundary conflicts
• Conference of Berlin 1884 making international
  borders for Africa
• Created the Tyranny of the Map because they did
  not consider cultural boundaries genocides in
  Rwanda were because of these issues

54
TERRITORIAL MORPHOLOGY

• Compact
• Shape without irregularity
• Nigeria
• Fragmented
• Broken into pieces
• Philippines
• Elongated
• Stretched out, long
• Chile
• Prorupt
• Panhandle
• Italy
• Perforated
• Has a country inside of it
• South Africa
• Landlocked
• Has no oceans or seas
• Switzerland

55
ANNEXATION

• Territory is added as a result of the land
  purchase or when it is claimed through
  incorporation

56
GERRYMANDERING

• Attempt to try to stack votes to guarantee
  congressional support for one particular party
  and fix elections

57
ABSOLUTE MONARCHY

• Supreme ruler runs the country
• Present day Saudi Arabia, Brunei, UAE

58
CONSTITUTIONAL MONARCHY

• Monarch can dismiss parliament, appoints judges,
  is commander in chief, holds the monarchal
  estates.
• Great Britain, Belgium, Japan

59
COMMONWEALTH COUNTRIES

• Retain the British monarch as their head of state
• Canada, Jamaica, Australia

60
FREE-MARKET DEMOCRACY VS. SOCIALISM

• Free-market does not try to put barriers on the
  economy (US and UK)
• Republics
• Free of aristocratic or monarchal control
• Need separation of powers and flexible
  constitution
• Socialism tries to distribute everything and
  centrally run the economy (USSR)
• Lacked incentive to produce and surplus of goods

61
GEOPOLITICS

• Global-scale relationships between sovereign
  states.
• Exam likes to ask about Cold War and
  relationships between democracies and Communist
  countries

62
CENTRIPETAL AND CENTRIFUGAL FORCES

• Centripetal
• Factors that hold together social and political
  fabric of the state
• Nationalism, well-liked leader, productive
  economy, effective social welfare programs
• Centrifugal forces
• Factors that tear apart the social and political
  fabric of the state
• Cultural differences or conflicts, political
  corruption, failing economy, natural disasters
• Yugoslavia had a good leader who identfied with
  everyone and he died and left a power vacuum

63
BALKANIZATION AND IRREDENTISM

• Balkanization
• When the political landscape goes from a larger
  state to several smaller states
• Yugoslavia, Czechoslovakia, Austro- Hungarian
  Empire, USSR
• Irredentism
• When a minority group desires to break away from
  a multi-ethnic state
• Or align itself with another state
• Chechnya, Timor, Ossetia

64
REUNIFICATION

• When nations were torn apart, but then come back
  together
• East and West Germany, return of the canal zone
  to Panama, Yemen

65
HEARTLAND-RIMLAND MODEL

• Halford Mackinder
• Effort to define the global geopolitical
  landscape and determine areas of potential future
  conflict
• Largest was Eastern European steppe in Russia at
  the time this was called the Heartland
• Rimland was rest of the continents of Europe and
  Asia and parts of Northern Africa
• Landwolves
• Eager to grab the area from the land (France)
• Seawolves
• Eager to grab the area from the sea (UK and
  Japan)

66
SHATTERBELT THEORY

• Saul Cohen
• Changed the Heartland to Pivot Area
• Changed the Rimland into the Inner Crescent
• Rest of the world was the Outer Crescent (US)

67
CONTAINMENT THEORY

• George Kennan
• Soviet Union would try to capture buffer states
• US would try to build a containment wall
• Worked out well at first Communism died in Greece
  and Iran
• US feared domino effect that if one state fell
  then many would follow

68
FARMING PRACTICES

• Intensive
• Lots of labor or small plot of land
• Extensive
• Limited labor or large plot of land
• Pastoralism
• Agriculture based on the seasonal movement of
  animals (nomadic herding)
• Plant domestication
• Plant cultivatars used plants for food and used
  it to make clothing
• Subsistence farming
• Feeding only the producers household
• Extensive subsistence
• Low amounts of labor in less populated areas
  (South America)

69
FARMING PRACTICES (CNTD)

• Non subsistence agriculture
• Cash-cropping to sell goods at markets
• Plantation
• Domestic consumption and exporting crops
• Bananas in Brazil, Sugar in Florida, Coffee in
  Ethiopia
• Communism and agriculture
• Communes resulted made of several families

70
HUMAN ECOLOGY

• How humans interact with nature

71
TYPES OF CROPPING

• Crop rotation
• One crop is planted on a plot of land and then
  switched to another plot later
• Multi-cropping
• Planting one or more than one crop on the same
  land
• Sustainable yield
• Amount of crops or animals that can be raised
  without endangering environment or too many
  expenses
• Non-food crops
• Textiles, animal feed, ethanol, biodiesel
• Shifting cultivation
• Slash and burn in rainforests

72
NEGATIVES OF CROPPING

• Extensive pastoralism
• Shifting animal herds between grazing pastures
• Overgrazing
• Too much grazing has led to dry grassland being
  eaten away
• Desertification
• Any human process that turns a vegetated
  environment into a desert-like landscape
• Soil salinization
• Evaporation of water trapping salt on the surface

73
AGRICULTURAL REVOLUTIONSFirst

• Vegetative planting
• Plants grown together
• Seed agriculture
• Fertilized seeds were planted together
• Animal domestication
• Breeding of animals for specific purposes
• Size of farms
• Small, mainly subsistence
• Columbian Exchange (popular on AP exams)
• Maize, peppers, potatoes, tomatoes, yucca,
  tobacco, rubber, peanuts, chocolate, and turkeys
  to Old World
• Wheat, rice, coffee, apples, citrus, horses,
  cattle, hogs, chickens, sheep, goats, and
  diseases to the New World

74
AGRICULTURAL REVOLUTIONS Second

• Mid- 1800s to early 1900s
• Developed
• Hybrid plants
• Fertilizers
• Pesticides
• Machines such as trucks, tractors, pumps, and
  trailers

75
AGRICULTURAL REVOLUTIONS Third

• Improvements
• Genetic engineering
• Development of vaccines, antibiotics, and growth
  hormones
• Factory farming
• Agribusiness
• Corporate agriculture
• Large scale extensive farms controlled by one
  company
• Seeing the end of the family farm in America

76
SPECIALIZED AGRICULTURE

• Natural foods emerging
• Non genetically modified foods (GMOs)
• Organics
• Hormone-free
• Grass-fed beef
• Alternative livestock
• Lamb, bison, llamas, goose, and duck
• Fish Farming
• Wineries

77
SECTORS OF PRODUCTION

• Primary
• Agriculture, mining, energy, forestry, fisheries
• Secondary
• Processing of raw materials (manufacturing)
• Tertiary (services)
• Transportation, wholesaling, retailing of the
  finished goods
• Quaternary
• Wholesaling, finance, banking, insurance, real
  estate, advertising, and marketing
• Quinary production
• Retailing, tourism, entertainment, and
  communication, government, or education, and
  utilities

78
LEVELS OF DEVELOPMENT

• First World
• Industrialized and service based
• Free markets
• High level of productivity
• High quality of life
• Second World
• Communist countries
• Centrally planned economies
• Third World
• Mainly agricultural
• Low levels of productivity
• Low quality of life
• Fourth World
• Third World with economic crisis
• Fifth World
• Third World with no government

79
NEWLY INDUSTRIALIZED COUNTRIES

• Third world states that have made a shift from
  agriculture to manufacturing
• Mexico, Brazil, Dominican Republic, Nigeria,
  China, Vietnam, India

80
COMPARATIVE ADVANTAGE

• Country has the ability to produce a good or
  service at less cost than other states

81
ASIAN TIGERS

• Old Asian Tigers
• Japan, South Korea, Taiwan, Hong Kong, Singapore
• Developed because of foreign aid during the 50s,
  60s, and 70s
• New Asian Tigers
• China, India, Indonesia, Malaysia, Thailand,
  Vietnam
• Developed because of foreign direct investment
  during the 80s and 90s
• Growth possible because of cheap land, labor, and
  resources and a lack of environmental regulations

82
ECONOMIC MEASURES OF DEVELOPMENT

• GDP total volume of a countrys economy
• Good Services
• GNI dollar value of all goods and services
  produced in a country plus the value of exports
  minus imports
• Goods Services(Exports-Imports)
• Trade surplus
• ExportsgtImports
• Trade deficit
• ExportsltImports
• GDP per capita
• GDP/Population
• GNI per capita
• GNI/Population

83
HUMAN DEVELOPMENT INDEX

• Designed by the UN to measure the level of
  development of states based on
• GDP per capita, the adult literacy rate, average
  level of education, and total life expectancy
• Score is indexed from .0-1.0
• Intent is to provide a more balanced measure of
  development

84
OTHER MEASUREMENTS

• The Gini coefficient
• Measures the difference between the rich and the
  poor population groups on a scale of 0-100
• The Gender-Related Development Index
• Compares men and women much of the way that HDI
  is calculated

85
ROSTOWS STAGES OF GROWTH

• Walter Rostow
• 5 stages of growth
• Traditional society focused on primary
  production
• Preconditions for takeoff leadership invests in
  infrastructure more technology is used
• Takeoff begins to shift focus to industry
• Drive to maturity technology advances, industry
  grows rapidly, workers become skilled
• Age of mass consumption highly specialized
  production like cars or energy, technology
  knowledge high, education levels are high,
  agriculture mechanized

86
DEPENDENCY THEORY

• Most LDCs are dependent on MDCs to provide
  employment
• Prebisch Thesis
• Detailed the dependency of the Third World
  economy on First World loans and investments to
  pay for their infrastructure
• Claimed that LDCs could never break the bonds of
  their dependence because they could never
  manufacture for themselves or make any extra money

87
BREAKING THE CYCLE OF DEPENDENCY

• LDC programs that try to break free from MDC
  control
• Internalization of economic capital
• Requires companies to deposit profits from the
  factories in LDC banks and reinvest locally
• Import substitution
• Instead of buying First World produced
  consumer-products, they would buy from LDC
  factories
• Nationalization of natural resource-based
  industries
• Instead of allowing foreign companies to own
  resources, local governments would
• Profit-sharing agreements
• Foreign companies agree to share part of the
  profits they get with the governments
• Technology development programs
• Use limited funds to invest in technological
  advances and worker training

88
OTHER DEVELOPMENT APPROACHES

• Tourism
• Brings in a good deal of money from foreigners
• Ecotourism has become very popular through rain
  forests, reefs, and savannahs
• Free trade agreements
• Improve international trade and boost economies
• Free-market reforms
• Allowing people to trade freely from a country,
  abolishing Communism

89
THEORY OF LOCATION

• Alfred Weber
• Determines the optimal factory locations
• Bulk-reducing manufacturing close to the inputs
  (limestone, coal, and water)
• Bulk-gaining manufacturing close to the
  consumers (cars)

90
FORDIST VS. POST-FORDIST PRODUCTION

• Fordist
• Relied on a single company owning all the aspects
  of production
• Post-Fordist
• Companies now dependent on many different
  manufacturers to build parts of cars

91
RETAIL LOCATION THEORY

• Threshold
• Minimum number of people required to support a
  business
• Range
• Maximum distance people are willing to travel to
  gain access to the service
• Spatial margin of profitability
• Area where local demand for the service maximizes
  profit

92
AGGLOMERATION AND DEGLOMERATION

• Agglomeration
• Concentration of human activities in a cluster or
  around a central place
• Agglomeration economies
• Find firms with related or similar products
  together and share in the advantages of skilled
  labor, specialized suppliers, and service
  providers
• Deglomeration
• When a location is overloaded with similar firms
  or services

93
SUBURBAN SPRAWL

• Sprawl
• Expansion of housing, transportation, and
  commercial development to undeveloped land on the
  urban periphery
• Anti-growth movements
• Push land laws to limit the growth in suburban
  areas
• Growth boundaries
• Set minimums for lot sizes of homes so they do
  not become packed in by the growth

94
EDGE CITIES

• CBDs that have grown in the suburbs

95
CITY TYPES

• Colonial cities
• Originated in colonial trade retained their
  European-style archetecture
• Fall-line cities
• Ports that were upstream to the point where ocan
  ships could no longer navigate (break-in-bulk
  point) Boston, Albany, Baltamore
• Medieval Cities
• Urban centers that date back to the Renaissance
  Rome, Paris, London, Kyoto, Beijing
• Gateway cities
• Places where immigrants have made their way into
  a country New York, Miami, Toronto
• Entrepot
• Port city in which goods are shipped in at one
  price and shipped out for another
• Megacities
• More than 10 million people Tokyo, New York,
  Mexico City
• Megalopolis
• Urbanized area of two or more cities that merge
  together Northeastern US

96
CITY TYPES (CNTD)

• World City
• Global center of finance
• First-order New York, London, Tokyo
• Second-order Los Angeles, Washington DC,
  Chicago, Frankfort, Paris
• Third-order San Francisco, Miami, Sydney
• Primate city
• Largest city is more than twice the size of the
  second largest

97
RANK SIZE RULE

• The nth largest city is 1/n the size of the
  countrys largest city

98
UBRAN SOCIETY

• Segregation
• Ethnic neighborhoods have sprung up Chinatown
• Redlining
• Designing homes so that African Americans cannot
  buy in that area
• Restrictive covenants
• Putting whites only clauses in home agreements
• Racial steering
• Real estate agents encouraging African Americans
  to only buy in certain areas

99
GENTRIFICATION

• The economic reinvestment in existing real estate
• Historical renovation
• Has had the negative effect of driving
  lower-class citizens out because of higher prices

100
URBAN SUSTAINABILITY

• Many problems to address
• Balancing taxes and maintaining municipal
  services
• Expensive schools
• Traffic congestion
• Pollution
• Mass transit can fix some of these problems
• New downtown housing
• Mixed-use buildings
• Both hosing and commercial space (New
  Urbanization)