Title: Managing Risk
1Chapter 17
Environmental Hazards and Human Health
- Managing Risk
- In the 21st Century
2Chapter Overview Questions
- What types of hazards do people face?
- Biological- bacteria, viruses, protists, fungi,
animal parasites - Chemical- toxins, mutagens, teratogens,
carcinogens - Physical- fires, earthquakes, weather
- Cultural- driving, smoking, poor diet, crime,
poverty, unsafe sex - What types of disease (biological hazards)
threaten people in developing countries and
developed countries?
3Chapter Overview Questions
- How can risks be estimated and recognized?
- Risk analysis (a potential career!)
- Risk assessment
- Comparative risk analysis (ranking risks)
- Risk management (making decisions)
- Risk communication (informing politicians the
public) -
4Core Case Study The Global HIV/AIDS Epidemic
- According to the World Health Organization (WHO),
in 2005 about 42 million people worldwide (1.1
million in the U.S.) were infected with HIV. - There is no vaccine for HIV if you get AIDS,
you will eventually die from it. - Drugs help some infected people live longer, but
only a tiny fraction can afford them. - Costs are starting to come down a bit
5Core Case Study The Global HIV/AIDS Epidemic
- AIDS has reduced the life expectancy of
sub-Saharan Africa from 62 to 40 47 years in the
seven countries most severely affected by AIDS.
Projected age structure of Botswana's population
in 2020.
Figure 18-2
6Core Case Study The Global HIV/AIDS Epidemic
HIV Positive
AIDS
Becoming Infected
Developing AIDS
Dying
42 million
4.9 million per year
3 million per year
7-10 yrs
(13,400 per day)
Eventually, all
Year 2005 data
7Core Case Study The Global HIV/AIDS Epidemic
- The virus itself is not deadly, but it cripples
the immune system, leaving the body susceptible
to infections such as Kaposis sarcoma (above).
Figure 18-1
8Viral Diseases
- HIV is the second biggest killer virus worldwide.
Five major priorities to slow the spread of the
disease are - Quickly reduce the number of new infections to
prevent further spread. - Concentrate on groups in a society that are
likely to spread the disease. - Provide free HIV testing and pressure people to
get tested. - Implement educational programs.
- Provide free or low-cost drugs to slow disease
progress.
9RISKS AND HAZARDS
- Risk is a measure of the likelihood that you will
suffer harm from a hazard. - We can suffer from
- Biological hazards from more than 1,400
pathogens (disease-causing organisms) - Chemical hazards in air, water, soil, and food.
- Physical hazards such as fire, earthquake,
volcanic eruption - Cultural hazards such as smoking, poor diet,
unsafe sex, drugs, unsafe working conditions, and
poverty.
10BIOLOGICAL HAZARDS DISEASE IN DEVELOPED AND
DEVELOPING COUNTRIES
- Nontransmissible Diseases- not caused by living
organisms - cannot spread from one person to another
- Transmissible a.k.a. Infectious Diseases- caused
by living organisms such as bacteria and viruses - can spread from person to person contagious
11Transmissible Disease
- Vectors Pathways for infectious disease in
humans.
Next
12 Wild animals
Mosquitoes
Food
Livestock
Water
Air
Pets
Baby, Im A-L-L-L Clean!
Yeah.keep talkin
Fetus and babies
Vectors of Transmissible Diseases
Other humans
Humans
Fig. 18-4, p. 420
13Transmissible Disease
- WHO estimates that each year the worlds seven
deadliest infections kill 13.6 million people
most of them the poor in developing countries.
Next
14 Disease (type of agent)
Deaths per year
Flu and pneumonia (viruses bacteria)
3.2 million
HIV/AIDS (virus)
3.0 million
Malaria (protozoa)
2.0 million
Diarrheal diseases (viruses, bacteria, protozoa)
1.9 million
Tuberculosis (bacteria)
1.7 million
Hepatitis B (virus)
1 million
Measles (virus)
800,000
Fig. 18-5, p. 420
15Case Study Growing Germ Resistance to Antibiotics
- Rapidly reproducing infectious bacteria are
becoming genetically resistant to widely used
antibiotics due to - Overuse of antibiotics A 2000 study found that
half of the antibiotics used to treat humans were
prescribed unnecessarily (also, MOST are used in
animal feed to hasten growth) - Genetic resistance Spread of bacteria around the
globe by humans overuse of pesticides which
produce pesticide resistant insects that carry
bacteria.
16Case Study The Growing Global Threat from
Tuberculosis
- The highly infectious tuberculosis bacterium (TB)
kills 1.7 million people per year and could kill
25 million (total) people by 2020. - Recent increases in TB are due to
- Lack of TB screening and control programs
especially in developing countries due to
expenses (half do not known they are infected) - Drugs must be taken every day for 6-8 months
- Genetic resistance to the most effective
antibiotics (symptoms disappear in in a few
weeks, patients stop taking their medicine)
17Viral Diseases
- Flu, HIV, and hepatitis B viruses infect and kill
many more people each year then highly publicized
West Nile and SARS viruses. - The influenza virus is the biggest killer virus
worldwide. - Pigs, chickens, ducks, and geese are the major
reservoirs of flu. - As they move from one species to another, they
can mutate and exchange genetic material with
other viruses, hastening viral evolution
18Case Study- Flu Pandemics
- Common flu kills about 2 of those infected.
- Occasionally, flu strains develop that kill 80
of those infected. - 1918- Spanish Flu- killed 20-50 million worldwide
- 500,000 deaths in USA
- People woke up healthy, died by nightfall
- 1957- Asian Flu- killed 1-4 million people
- 1968- Hong Kong Flu- killed 1-4 million people
19Case Study- Flu Pandemics
- Many health scientists believe that sooner or
later, a potent flu pandemic will sweep the world
again. - Hastened by global air travel
- Could infect 25 of the worlds people and kill
between 2 and 360 million people worldwide - Worst-case, USA 1.9 million dead, 8.5 million
hospitalized, 450 billion in economic losses,
massive social economic disruption. - H5N1- bird flu- deadly new strain of avian flu,
related to 1918 flu - So far, has not developed the ability to spread
from humans to humans
20Case Study Malaria Death by Mosquito
- Malaria kills about 2 million people per year and
has probably killed more than all of the wars
ever fought.
Figure 18-7
21Plasmodium is an infectious protozoan
Female mosquito bites infected human, ingesting
blood that contains Plasmodium gametocytes
Merozoites enter blood-stream and develop into
gametocytes causing malaria and making infected
person a new reservoir
Plasmodium develops in Anopheles mosquito
Sporozoites penetrate liver and develop into
merozoites
Female mosquito injects Plasmodium sporozoites
into human host
Stepped Art
Fig. 18-7, p. 423
22Case Study Malaria Death by Mosquito
- Economists estimate that spending 2-3 billion on
malaria treatment may save more than 1 million
lives per year.
Figure 18-6
23Case Study Malaria Death by Mosquito
- Columbia University economist Jeffrey Sachs-
preventing malaria for one person costs 25 cents
to 2.40 per year- This is probably the best
bargain on the planet
Figure 18-6
24Case Study Malaria Death by Mosquito
- Spraying insides of homes with low concentrations
of the pesticide DDT greatly reduces the number
of malaria cases. - Under international treaty enacted in 2002, DDT
is being phased out in developing countries. - Window screens bed nets
- Clear vegetation around houses
- Plant trees to soak up water in marshes
- Zinc Vitamin A supplements to increase
resistance to malaria
25Good News/ Bad News
- Good news- According to the WHO
- Global death rate from infectious diseases has
dropped by 2/3 between 1970 2000 - Projected to continue to decrease
- Global immunizations of children have increased
from 10 to 84 between 1971 2000 - Saves about 10 million lives per year
26Good News/ Bad News
- Bad news- According to the WHO
- Only 10 of global medical research development
money goes toward preventing infectious disease
in developing countries - Even though more people worldwide suffer from
these diseases than all other diseases combined
27 Solutions
Infectious Diseases
Increase research on tropical diseases and
vaccines
Reduce poverty
Decrease malnutrition
Improve drinking water quality
Reduce unnecessary use of antibiotics
Educate people to take all of an antibiotic
prescription
Reduce antibiotic use to promote livestock growth
Careful hand washing by all medical personnel
Immunize children against major viral diseases
Oral rehydration for diarrhea victims
Global campaign to reduce HIV/AIDS
Fig. 18-8, p. 424
28Ecological Medicine and Infectious Diseases
- Mostly because of human activities, infectious
diseases are moving at increasing rates from one
animal species to another (including humans). - Ecological (or conservation) medicine is devoted
to tracking down these connections between
wildlife and humans to determine ways to slow and
prevent disease spread.
29Case Study Ecological MedicineFruit Bats, Pig
Farms, and Japanese Encephalitis (Nipah Virus)
30Case Study Ecological Medicine
- Malaysia, mid-1990s- clear forests for pig farms
- Displaced fruit bats a.k.a. flying foxes move
into rafters of pig barns
- Bat droppings infected with Nipah Virus (Japanese
encephalitis) drop into pig drinking water
- Virus spreads from pigs to keepers,
- killing 40 of human victims
- Outbreak contained 8 pig farms closed, 1 million
pigs slaughtered disposed of
31CHEMICAL RISKS
- Toxic Chemicals vs Hazardous Chemicals
- What is the difference?
- Toxic means poisonous, e.g. too much Tylenol
damages your liver. - Hazardous means harmful, e.g. fires floods
are hazardous, but not toxic.
32CHEMICAL RISKS
- A toxic (a.k.a. poisonous) chemical can cause
temporary or permanent harm, or death - Mutagens are chemicals or forms of radiation that
cause or increase the frequency of mutations in
DNA. - Teratogens are chemicals that cause harm or birth
defects to a fetus or embryo. - Carcinogens are chemicals or types of radiation
that can cause or promote cancer.
33CHEMICAL RISKS
- A hazardous chemical can harm humans or other
animals because it - Is flammable
- Is explosive
- An irritant
- Interferes with oxygen uptake, like CO (carbon
monoxide) - Induce allergic reactions.
34Effects of Chemicals on the Immune, Nervous, and
Endocrine Systems
- Long-term exposure to some chemicals at low doses
may disrupt the bodys - Immune system specialized cells and tissues that
protect the body against disease and harmful
substances. - Nervous system brain, spinal cord, and
peripheral nerves. - Endocrine system complex network of glands that
release minute amounts of hormones into the
bloodstream.
35HAAs Hormonally Active Agents
- Molecules of certain synthetic chemicals have
shapes similar to those of natural hormones and
can adversely affect the endocrine system.
Next
36 Hormonally Active Agents (HAAs)
a.k.a. gender benders
Normal Hormone Process
Hormone Mimic
Hormone Blocker
Antiandrogen chemical
Hormone
Estrogenlike chemical
Receptor
Cell
Feminization Smaller penises Lower sperm
counts Hermaphroditism
Aluminum DDT Mercury PCBs Phthlates
Bisphenol A (BPA) Atrazine other herbicides
Fig. 18-9, p. 427
37Case Study A Black Day in Bhopal, India
- The worlds worst industrial accident occurred in
1984 at a pesticide plant in Bhopal, India. - An explosion at Union Carbide pesticide plant in
an underground storage tank released a large
quantity of highly toxic methyl isocyanate (MIC)
gas. - 15,000-22,000 people died
- Indian officials claim that simple upgrades could
have prevented the tragedy.
38TOXICOLOGY ASSESSING CHEMICAL HAZARDS
- Typical variations in sensitivity to a toxic
chemical within a population, mostly because of
genetic variation.
Figure 18-10
39TOXICOLOGY ASSESSING CHEMICAL HAZARDS
- Factors determining the harm caused by exposure
to a chemical include - The amount of exposure (dose).
- The frequency of exposure.
- The person who is exposed (age, size, gender,
etc.) - The effectiveness of the bodys detoxification
systems. - Ones genetic makeup.
40TOXICOLOGY ASSESSING CHEMICAL HAZARDS
- Estimating human exposure to chemicals and their
effects is very difficult because of the many and
often poorly understood variables involved.
Next
41 Water pollutant levels
Air pollutant levels
Soil/dust levels
Food pesticide levels
Nutritional health
?
Mathematical measurements modeling
Overall health
Lifestyle
Predicted level of toxicant in people
Personal habits
Metabolism
Genetic predisposition
Accumulation
Excretion
Lung, intestine skin absorption rates
Fig. 18-11, p. 431
42TOXICOLOGY ASSESSING CHEMICAL HAZARDS
- Risk assessment expert Joseph V. Rodricks
- Toxicologists know a great deal about a few
chemicals, a little about many, and next to
nothing about most
43TOXICOLOGY ASSESSING CHEMICAL HAZARDS
- Children are more susceptible to the effects of
toxic substances because - Children breathe more air, drink more water, and
eat more food per unit of body weight than
adults. - They are exposed to toxins when they put their
fingers or other objects in their mouths. - Children usually have less well-developed immune
systems and detoxification processes than adults.
44TOXICOLOGY ASSESSING CHEMICAL HAZARDS
- Under existing laws, most chemicals are
considered innocent until proven guilty, and
estimating their toxicity is difficult,
uncertain, and expensive. - Federal and state governments do not regulate
about 99.5 of the commercially used chemicals in
the U.S.
45Protecting Children from Toxic Chemicals
- The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency proposed
that regulators should assume children have 10
times the exposure risk of adults to
cancer-causing chemicals. - Some health scientists contend that regulators
should assume a risk 100 times that of adults.
46TOXICOLOGY ASSESSING CHEMICAL HAZARDS
- Some scientists and health officials say that
preliminary but not conclusive evidence that a
chemical causes significant harm should spur
preventive action (precautionary principle). - Manufacturers contend that wide-spread
application of the precautionary principle would
make it too expensive to introduce new chemicals
and technologies.
47Risk analysis
48RISK ANALYSIS
- Scientists have developed ways to
- Evaluate and compare risks
- Decide how much risk is acceptable
- Find affordable ways to reduce it.
Next
49Risk analysis
- Risk assessment (evaluating individual risks)
- Comparative risk analysis (ranking risks)
- Risk management (making decisions)
- Risk communication (informing politicians the
public) -
50 Comparative AVERAGE Risk Analysis
Most Serious Ecological and Health Problems
High-Risk Health Problems Indoor air pollution
Outdoor air pollution Worker chemical
exposure Pollutants in drinking water
Pesticide residues on food Toxic chemicals in
consumer products
High-Risk Ecological Problems Global climate
change Stratospheric ozone depletion
Wildlife habitat alteration destruction
Species extinction, loss of biodiversity
Medium-Risk Ecological Problems Acid
deposition Pesticides Airborne toxic
chemicals Toxic chemicals, nutrients, and
sediment in surface waters
Low-Risk Ecological Problems Oil spills
Groundwater pollution Radioactive isotopes
Acid runoff to surface waters Thermal pollution
Fig. 18-12, p. 433
51RISK ANALYSIS
- Estimating risks from using many technologies is
difficult due to unpredictability of human
behavior, chance, and sabotage. - Reliability of a system is multiplicative
- If a nuclear power plant is 95 reliable and
human reliability is 75, then the overall
reliability is (0.95 X 0.75 0.71) 71.
52RISK ANALYSIS
Figure 18-A
53RISK ANALYSIS
- Number of deaths per year in the world from
various causes. Parentheses show deaths in terms
of the number of fully loaded 400-passenger jumbo
jets crashing every day of the year with no
survivors.
Next
54 Cause of death
Annual deaths (Global)
11 million (75)
Poverty/malnutrition/ disease cycle
5 million (34)
Tobacco
3.2 million (22)
Pneumonia and flu
3 million (21)
Air pollution
3 million (21)
HIV/AIDS
2 million (14)
Malaria
1.9 million (13)
Diarrhea
1.7 million (12)
Tuberculosis
1.2 million (8)
Car accidents
Work-related injury disease
1.1 million (8)
1 million (7)
Hepatitis B
800,000 (5)
Measles
Fig. 18-13, p. 435
55Perceiving Risk
- Most of us are not good at evaluating risk!
- Most individuals evaluate the relative risk they
face based on - Fear
- Degree of control
- Optimism bias
- Whether risk is catastrophic.
- Instant gratification
- Unfair distribution of risk (NIMBY)
- Sometimes misleading information, denial, and
irrational fears can cloud judgment.
56RISK ANALYSIS
- Comparisons of risks people face expressed in
terms of shorter average life span.
Figure 18-14
57 Shortens average life span in the U.S. by
Hazard
Poverty
710 years
xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx
xxxxxxxxxxxxx
7.5 years
Smoking
610 years
Overweight (35)
6 years
Unmarried
also, Born Male
5 years
Overweight (15)
2 years
Spouse smoking
1 year
Driving
7 months
Air pollution
5 months
Alcohol
5 months
Drug abuse
4 months
Flu
4 months
AIDS
3 months
Drowning
1 month
Pesticides
1 month
Fire
1 month
Natural radiation
8 days
Medical X rays
5 days
Oral contraceptives
5 days
Toxic waste
4 days
Flying
1 day
Hurricanes, tornadoes
1 day
10 hours
Lifetime near nuclear plant
Fig. 18-14, p. 436
58Becoming Better at Risk Analysis
- We can
- Carefully evaluate or tune out of the barrage of
bad news covered in the media - Compare risks
- Concentrate on reducing personal risks over which
we have some control.
Figure 18-3
59Becoming Better at Risk Analysis
- Read p. 464-465 Most People Do Not Know How
and Several Principles - Write one example of each of the five factors
that cause people to mis-evaluate risk try to
make at least two of your examples original. - Briefly describe one personal risk that you
probably overestimate and one that you probably
underestimate.
Figure 18-3
60 Risk Assessment
Risk Management
Hazard identification
Comparative risk analysis
What is the hazard?
How does it compare with other risks?
Risk reduction
How much should it be reduced?
Probability of risk
How likely is the event?
Risk reduction strategy
How will the risk be reduced?
Consequences of risk
Financial commitment
What is the likely damage?
How much money should be spent?
Fig. 18-3, p. 419