Writing

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Writing

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1. Why Write
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• 1.1. Writing to Work
• With computers now a part of almost every job,
  word processing and e-mailing are essential
  skills.
• Getting and keeping a job these days usually
  involves good writing skills.
• You will need writing in your job in these forms
• Letters of application and Resume
• Memos and Reports (office works)
• Letters
• Records and Orders (health-care professional)
• Legal Briefs (lawyer)

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1.2. Writing to Learn

• All the students need to know writing techniques
  to
• Take Notes
• Write Essays Reports
• Answer Examination Questions
• Be able to write letters E-mails

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1.3. Writing to Communicate

• All of us need writing to be able to communicate
  using
• Email
• Text Messages (SMS language or textese )
• Personal Letter

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2. The Writing Process
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• No two writers approach writing in exactly the
  same way. But they do tend to follow a series of
  actions that look something like this
• Exploring Ideas
• Prewriting
• Organizing
• Writing a First Draft
• Revising the Draft
• Producing the Final Copy

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2.1. Step 1 Exploring Ideas

• Remember that writing is like speech, and
  speaking includes discovering ideas as you say
  them. This is the first step of writing.
• SO
• Before you sit down to write, let your mind speak
  freely.
• When inspiration happens, capture it by writing
  on what ever you can
• Napkins, Piece of paper, back of your hand.

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In order to have your exploration systematic you
need to bare three items in your mind

• Something to say
• Reason for saying
• Someone to say it to
• So
• Never forget the three fundamental questions
• What is my subject?
• What is my purpose?
• Who is my audience?

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2.1.1. Your Subject

• While choosing your subjects keep these issues in
  mind
• Choose the most interesting subjects to your
  audience
• Choose the subjects about which you care
• Choose the subjects about which you know
• You must select and then narrow your subject

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Example Suppose you are asked to describe a job
you know well. Ask yourelf thgese questions

1. What jobs have I done or do now?
2. What do I know about these jobs?
3. Which jobs (or parts of one job) do I feel
   strongly about? What do I hate? What parts make
   me angry or happy?
4. What tools or materials do I use in my job?
5. How do I perform each task?
6. Which tasks are most interesting or boring?
7. What examples or little stories best illustrate
   these points?

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2.1.2. Your Purpose

• What do you want to do with your writing?
• You can
• Inform (your classmates about some procedures at
  your job)
• Persuade (your classmates that they should find
  or avoid a job like you)
• Entertain ( your classmates with examples of odd
  incidents you have experienced at your job)
• All these three

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Exercise Read each sentence and write the
purpose of the paragraph. Then choose one of the
sentences and revise it so that it begins a
different paragraph.

1. Before November 18, 1883, when the railroads
   instituted the Standard Time and time zones, the
   time of day varied from city to city and town to
   town
2. There must be better ways to resolve differences
   than going to war............
3. The history behind the naming of months of the
   calendar is fascinating.
4. The Roman emperors Julius and Augustus Caesar
   each added a month to the year, and named them
   ,of course, after themselves

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2.1.3. Your Audiance

• Who is your audience?
• The answer to this question may help you
• Determine the content of your writing
• Determine the purpose of your writing
• The amount of needed explanation
• The amount of needed evidence to persuade

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• Exercise For each of the following topic,
  list two or three points you would include if
  your were writing to a different audiences
  specified.
• Example Topic The benefits of controlled diets
• Audience Overweight adults better health,
  better appearance, feeling of well being
• Topic The role of personal web sites on the
  internet like My Space
• Audience People between the age of 12-30
• Audience People between the age of 40-70
• 2. Topic The reasons for requiring helmets for
  motorcycle riders
• Audience Riders of motorcycles
• Audience Motor cycle manufacturers

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• Exercise Read the text and answer
  questions

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1. Whats the writers main purpose to inform,
   persuade or entertain? Or is it a combination of
   these purposes?
2. Whos the audience for this article? Would you
   expect to find it in a college textbook, a
   newspaper or a popular magazine? Write your
   reasons.
3. What point or points is the writer making?
4. Whats the writers attitude toward his son? Does
   he have more than one attitude? How do you know?

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2.2. Step 2 Prewriting

• The second step of writing process involves
• capturing your thoughts
• on a piece of paper or on the computer screen.
• This step is called
• prewriting
• in which you jot down whatever comes to your mind
  without any worrying about spelling or
  punctuation.
• There are three techniques regarding this step
• 1. Brainstorming
• 2. Clustering
• 3. Freewriting

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2.2.1. Brainstorming

• One way to capture your thoughts is by
• Brainstorming
• Or listing thoughts as they come to you
• Here is an example from a student who has been
  asked to describe a job

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2.2.2. Clustering

• In this technique you put your topic in a circle
  in the middle of the page and then add related
  ideas as they occur to you.
• These related ideas are called
• Branches
• In the following example the topic is a job
  description

my job delivering pizza
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(No Transcript)
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2.2.3. Freewriting

• In this technique you simply start writing about
  your topic without worrying about sentence
  structure, spelling, logic, and grammar.
• Here the only difference is that your pieces of
  information is not in the form of single words
  but sentences.
• Use abbreviations and shortcuts so you can get
  your ideas down fast.
• Dont think of your freewriting as disorganized.
  Just let your ideas flow.
• You can expand it, change it or omit some parts

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Here we have the same example of a job description
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2.3. Step 3 Organizing

• Now that you captured your ideas you can select
  from and organize them
• Underline or highlight the most promising ideas
  in your brainstorming list. Then rewrite the
  list. You can add more ideas to your list.
• Choose the part of clustering diagram that seems
  most promising. You can even do a second
  clustering diagram.
• Highlight the most promising parts of your
  freewriting. You can narrow your subject or add
  more details.

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2.3.1. Selecting

• Now you have narrowed your focus
• And Generate more ideas
• The next step is to choose one of those ideas
  that fits your purpose and audience.
• Example
• Your topic is the pizza delivery as a job.
• Your Purpose is to entertain who have part time
  job and to show that your job is not that bad.
• So
• You will keep the most humorous information
  Fuzzy Ms. Fritzy, Wobbly Wally, and the
  Fraternity boys
• You will omit the unimportant parts such as the
  ones about your cell phone, and working hours

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2.3.2. Outlining

• . To write an outline, follow these guidelines.
• Choose a topic
• Determine the larger purpose of your work
• Gather supporting materials
• Decide how to generally order your supporting
  evidence so that it supports your larger purpose
• Decide whether to write a topic outline or a
  sentence outline.
• Identify your main categories.
• Think of at least two points for each category.
• Expand upon your points with sub-points if
  necessary.

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Example
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After deciding on the focus of the customers,
the pizza delivery writer can make a rough
outline
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2.4. Step 4 Writing a First Draft

• In the prewriting stage you have
• Select your best ideas
• Arrange them in some reasonable order
• Now
• Begin writing your first draft and

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1. Dont worry about writing something perfect.
2. Write fast as if speaking your words aloud.
3. Leave wide margins.
4. If new ideas occur to you write them on the
   margin.
5. Double-space so there will be enough room for
   changes
6. Use only one side of the paper so you can cut and
   paste the changes.
7. Tape or staple additions where you want them to
   go.
8. Say something loud before you write it.
9. Circle the words you think you misspelled or will
   want to change later

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Example Here is the example of description pizza
delivery as job
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2.5. Step 5 Revising the Draft

• After completing your first draft, set it aside.
• Give yourself a chance to see it with fresh eyes
  later.
• Its hard to think about changing and correcting
  your work immediately after you finish a draft.
• You tend to read what you think you said, not
  whats actually on the paper.

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2.5.1. Reviewing

• Now go back to what you have written , read it
  carefully.
• Study its organization, word choice, and details.
• You will find something to cut and something to
  add.
• Rearrange sections, rephrase sentences, and
  improve your word choice.
• Look at the words you circle earlier and correct
  the misspellings.
• Make notes in the margin and use arrows to show
  the place they will be added.

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Example Here is our old examples reviewing
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2.5.2. Reading aloud

• Now read your work aloud. Listen hard. Youll
  probably hear mistakes to correct and discover
  improvements to make.
• Then read your work again , perhaps to another
  person, and repeat the process until youre
  satisfied that your writing is interesting and
  clear.

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2.5.3.Predicting

• Remember
• Readers dont merely receive information
• they actively attempt to find meaning for
  themselves.
• They predict what will follow from your opening
  sentences and then perhaps adjust their
  predictions as they read on.
• Here is how to do it
• Read the first sentence or two
• Stop and think about what your readers would
  expect to follow.
• Decide if the rest of the paragraph satisfies
  those predictions.
• Make notes on what you add, remove, or shift to
  satisfy your readers expectations.

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2.6. Step 6 Producing the Final Copy

• Once youre reasonably satisfied with you
  writing, you can begin the final copy.
• Prepare it according to the guidelines of your
  instructor.
• Before finishing pay attention to the details you
  have ignored

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2.6.1. Editing

• Examine and look for your mistakes carefully.
• Check the misspelled or repeated words.
• Look for grammatical errors, missing word
  endings, incomplete sentences, and incorrect
  punctuation.
• Read the pare more than once.
• Copy it again and again including the new changes.

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2.6.2. Proofreading

• Proofreading means carefully examining the last
  copy again, and comparing it with previous ones.
• Read the paper slowly.
• Place a ruler under each line to focus your eyes.
• Read the paper aloud.

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Example Here is the pizza delivery examples
final copy.
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3.Sentence
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3.1. Building Repairing Sentences3.1.1. What
is a Sentence?

• A sentence is the basic unit of expression.
• Every sentence must make a complete statement.

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• Most often the subject comes first and the verb
  follows the subject. Examples
• This group of words that can express a complete
  proposition is called a clause.

Subject Verb
President Abraham Lincoln loved
He saved
The turkey was
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As you can see the subject and the verb of a
sentence dont complete the statement. That
usually requires additional words that follow the
verb
Subject verb Remainder of the clause
President Abraham Lincoln Loved Animals.
He Saved A turkeys life.
The turkey was A gift for Christmas dinner.
This combination of Subject verb completion
of the statement is called an independent
clause. An independent clause can stand as a
complete sentence.
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3.1.1.1. Identifying Subjects

• The best way to identify the subject and verb is
  to look for both at the same time.
• The subject
• Tells who or what the clause makes a statement
  about.
• Usually appears at the beginning of the statement
  before the verb.
• Can be a proper noun, subject pronoun, common
  noun, or gerund.

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Exercise Underline the subjects in each sentence.

1. Tad Lincoln was only ten years old in 1863.
2. He adored the turkey and named it Jack.
3. The bird soon followed Tad around the White House
   grounds.
4. Tad and his father agreed not to kill the animal.
5. Pardoning the White House turkey has since become
   an annual tradition for presidents.

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3.1.1.2. Identifying Verbs

• The verb
• Says what the subject does or is.
• Usually has a tense indicating if the verb
  discusses the past, present, or future.
• Usually follows the subject and begins a
  statement about the subject.
• May contain more than one word.

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Example Circle the verbs in the following
sentences.

1. Lincoln was controversial throughout his
   presidency.
2. By todays standards, people might even consider
   Lincoln as racist.
3. Lincoln didnt free the slaves at the beginning
   of the Civil War for a simple reason.
4. He wanted to bring the South back into the Union
   quickly.
5. However like other great presidents, he grew in
   office and took courageous positions.
6. In the fall of 1862, he drafted the Emancipation
   Proclamation, freeing the slaves in the areas
   still in rebellion as of January1, 1863.

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3.1.2. Coordination

• If you want to keep your readers interested, you
  need to create some variety in your sentences.
• Sentence variety comes largely from joining
  sentences.
• One way to add sentences is to add words that
  join them.
• A joining word is called conjunction.
• Notice how conjunctions connect the following
  pairs of words

John and I (two people, or subjects)
Tripped or fell (two action verbs)
A fat yet athletic man (two adjectives)
Moved quickly but carefully ( two adverbs)
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• One kind of conjunction is called
• coordinating conjunction.
• As you can see in these examples each pair of
  word is grammatically equal or coordinate.
• So
• Coordinating conjunctions are the ones that can
  join grammatically equal structures.
• The coordinating conjunctions are seven
• for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so

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• ? As coordinating conjunctions can join two
  grammatically equal structures, they can connect
  two sentences. Remember that every sentence must
  have at least one independent clause (a subject
  and a verb that can stand alone). In this case
  you create a single sentence with two independent
  clauses. This single sentence is called compound
  sentence.
• Examples
• Male babies often wear blue, and female babies
  were pink.
• Years ago, people wanted to protect their infant
  boys from evil spirits, so they dressed the boys
  in blue.
• People associated blue with good spirits, for
  those spirits live in the blue sky.
• Of course, people cared about their female
  children, yet people did not care enough to dress
  them in blue.

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Coordinating conjunctions do not connect two
structure without any additional impact. They
also explain the logical relationship between the
two clauses
Conjunction Purpose Example
for Shows a reason (the second clause gives a reason for the first) He is gambling with his health, for he has been smoking far too long.
and Shows addition They gamble, and they smoke.
nor Shows a negative alternative (It is the negative form of or and it must contain a negative word such as not) They do not gamble nor do they smoke.
but Shows contrast They gamble, but they don't smoke.
or Shows and alternative or choice Every day they gamble or they smoke.
yet Shows an unexpected contrast (It is similar in meaning to although) They gamble, yet they don't smoke.
so Shows a result (the first clause results in the second.) He gambled well last night so he smoked a cigar to celebrate.
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Punctuation rules say you do not need a comma for
all coordinating conjunctionsPlace a comma
before the coordinating conjunction that joins
independent clauses.Don not use a comma before
coordinating conjunctions that merely join two
words

• Example
• Tom likes ice cream, but he likes pizza better.
• Tom likes ice cream and pizza.

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Exercise Join each of the following pairs of
sentences with one coordinating conjunction

1. It was August 3, 1877. A stagecoach was traveling
   across California.
2. A man with a flour sack over his head stopped the
   coach. He pointed the rifle at the drivers.
3. The man told them to throw their cash box. He did
   not harm anyone.
4. Later someone found the box. That person was
   surprised.
5. The box contained an angry poem signed by Black
   Bart". It also contained a note of apology
   saying, Driver, give my respects to your friend
   , the other driver.
6. Black Bart continued robbing. He continued to
   leave humorous verses.
7. The stagecoach company was not amused. It offered
   a reward of 800 for his capture.
8. On Barts last hold up, someone shot and wounded
   him. He tried to stop bleeding with a
   handkerchief that he left behind.
9. Detectives learned that Black Barts real name by
   tracing the laundry mark on the handkerchief. The
   robber might have gone free.

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1. He was Charles E. Bolton and elderly gentleman
   with a mustache, gold-headed cane, and fin
   clothes. He finally confessed to his crimes.
2. He also said, I never robbed a passenger. I
   never treated a human being badly. (use nor, and
   change the wording of the second paragraph)
3. He was supposed to serve a long term in prison,
   His behavior was so gentlemanly that he was
   released four years later.

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3.1.3. Subordination

• Look at the following sentence
• I came home from work, and I found an eight-foot
  cobra snake in my living room.
• In this sentence two equal structure have been
  joined by a coordinating conjunction. Do you
  think the idea in both structures are also equal?
  
• These ideas shouldnt be joined by and. They need
  to be joined in a way that expresses their
  inequality. Here are two possibilities
• When I came home from work, I found an eight-foot
  cobra snake in my living room.
• After coming home from work, I found and
  eight-foot cobra snake in my living room.
• Now the less important idea is subordinate to the
  more important one. This process is called
  subordination.

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• Subordination creates a kind of clause called
• dependent clause.
• A dependent clause is a kind of clause which
  cannot stand alone as a separate sentence.
  Because its meaning is not complete without an
  independent clause. A dependent clause gives us
  the less important information than the
  independent clause.
• Example
• When Albert sits down for dinner, he can eat
  seven pizzas.
• The joining word when subordinates the clause it
  introduces. Therefore, we call it a subordinating
  conjunction.

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Exercise Each sentence contains a dependent
clause, an independent clause and a subordinating
conjunction. Label them with DC, IC, and SC.

1. In 1936,when the Olympic Games begin in Nazi
   Germany, Adolf Hitler wanted them to prove his
   theories of Aryan (white) superiority.
2. However after a twenty-two-year-old
   African-American named James Cleveland Owens had
   competed in the track-and field events, the young
   man ripped those theories to pieces.
3. At the beginning of track-and-field events, Owens
   felt tense because a German had won a gold medal
   the day before and received Hitlers enthusiastic
   congratulations.
4. But later the same day, when one of the
   African-American athletes won a gold medal,
   Hitler did not shake his hand but hurried out of
   the stadium.
5. Although Hitler claimed he left to escape a light
   drizzle, the meaning of German dictators action
   was obvious.
6. If Hitler felt bad about a black man winning a
   medal, Owens would soon make him feel much worse.
7. When the track-and-field events were over, Owen
   had won four gold medals, breaking or equaling
   nine Olympic records

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(When Conjunctions) After As As soon as Before Once Since Until When While After I lost, As I was walking down the street,.. As soon as you finish, Before the lights go out,.. Once you have finished the cleaning,(means after) Since I made my first billion dollar,. Until the sun sets, When the semester is over,. While the music was playing,..
(Why Conjunctions) Because Since Because you are improving your writing.. Since the water in the lake is o warm,
(Where Conjunctions) Where Wherever Where there is smoke, Wherever you can find a job,..
(Contrasting Conjunctions) Although Even though Whereas Although you look honest, Even though the test was difficult,. Whereas many people thought the world was flat,.
(Conditional Conjunctions) If Unless If I have the opportunity,. Unless he stops playing the music loudly
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• Punctuation rules say that you need a comma after
  the dependent clause at the beginning of a
  sentence.
• Example
• When the alarm clock rings in the morning, I put
  the pillow over my head.
• You shouldn't use a comma before a dependent
  clause at the end of a sentence(but you may use a
  comma before a long clause beginning with the
  words unless, although, or since).
• Example
• I put the pillow over my head when the alarm
  clock rings in the morning.
• I always get to work on time, although my hair
  may not be combed or my shirt buttoned.

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Exercise Read the sentences and match each pair
with appropriate subordinating conjunction.

1. No one was surprised at Jesse Owens success in
   the 1936 Olympics. He had done something even
   more remarkable a year earlier.
2. He competed in the Big Ten championship on May
   25, 1935. He had the greatest day in the history
   of modern track competition.
3. He didnt think he would even be able to
   participate. He has strained his back a few weeks
   earlier.
4. He could not even jog at the warm-up before the
   meet. He decided to compete in the 100-yard dash.
5. He got off to a perfect start. He finished the
   dash in 9.4 seconds, matching the world record.
6. His coach advised Owen to take only a single long
   jump. He leaped almost 27 feet and beat the world
   record by nearly a half foot.
7. Owens won the 200-yard dash in 20.3 seconds. He
   set another world record.
8. Owens finished the 220-yard low hurdle in 22.6
   seconds. He broke an 11-year-old world record.
9. Owens completed four events in forty-five
   minutes. He set three world records and tied
   another.

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3.1.4. Pronouns

• Pronouns
• are words that can replace nouns.
• This part will introduce you to additional ways
  of joining sentences, with pronouns.
• Look at the two sentences below.
• I talked to the counselor. She was very helpful.
• The words the counselor and she refer to one
  person. In this example she could be replaced
  with another pronoun, who
• I talked to the counselor who was very helpful.
• We call who a relative pronoun because it relates
  the information was very helpful to the counselor.

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• The relative pronouns are
• who, whom, whose, which, and that. 
• The teacher who has that book is Ms.
  Lincoln. Jane is the person to whom I sent the
  invitation. The man whose car I hit was very
  nice about it. My report which is due
  tomorrow is finished. The tomatoes that John
  gave me from his garden are delicious.
• Clauses beginning with the relative pronouns are
  called Relative clause.
• They are dependent clauses because they cannot
  stand alone as a sentence. They are called
  adjective clause because they describe a noun or
  a pronoun.
• The place of an adjective clause is exactly after
  the noun it describes.
• Example Bill bought his daughter a car that
  costs a fortune.

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There are two kinds of adjective clauses
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Read the two sentences below1. You cant start a
car that has a dead battery.2. My new car, which
I bought in October, started everyday in the
coldest weather

• Now
• Omit the adjective clauses in both sentences.
• You cant start a car
• My new car.. started everyday in the coldest
  weather.
• If you consider the changes in meaning you can
  see that there is a great difference between the
  meanings of sentence (1) and sentence (a).In
  sentence (1), the relative clause restricts the
  meaning of the car to the one with a dead battery
  and not any other car. So we call this relative
  clause a Restrictive Relative Clause. But the
  sentences (2) and (b) have similar meanings. In
  sentence (2) the relative clause just adds a bit
  of extra information and because the clause
  doesn't restrict the meaning in a particular way
  we call the clause a Nonrestrictive Relative
  Clause. We shouldn't use a comma around a
  restrictive relative clause while we should use
  commas around the nonrestrictive relative clause.
  

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• The relative pronoun who, which and that can
  serve as the subject of their clause
• Examples
• Dr. Dunn is the professor who teaches modern
  language.
• Our car, which is ten years old, needs to be
  replaced.
• You have to take a course that fulfills the
  natural science requirement.
• The relative pronouns whom, that, which are the
  objects of their clauses.
• Example
• Please give this form to the man whom you see at
  the front desk.
• You must fill out several forms that you can get
  from the receptionist.
• This is the form on which you need to write your
  name and address.
• The relative pronoun in the object position can
  be omitted except when it follows a preposition.
• Please give this form to the man you see at the
  front desk.
• You must fill out several forms you can get from
  the receptionist.
• This is the form on which you need to write your
  name and address.

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Exercise Combine the following sentences using
the relative pronoun.

1. Throughout France in the early sixteenth century,
   New Years Day was celebrated on march 25. It
   began the spring season.
2. People would celebrate for a week by exchanging
   gifts at parties and dinners. These ended on
   April 1.
3. However, in 1564, King Charles IX moved the date
   of the New Years Day back to January 1. It was
   the beginning of the new Gregorian calendar.
4. Nevertheless, for many of the French, gift-giving
   and parties continued to occur on April1. They
   resisted the charge.
5. Some of the people made fun of these
   conservatives by sending foolish gifts and
   invitations to parties. The parties didnt exist.
6. After the French became comfortable with January
   1 as the beginning of the year, they continued to
   play jokes on April 1. It became the tradition.
7. Two hundred years later. The English adopted the
   custom. It then went on to reach the American
   colonies.

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Now look at another example of relative clause
joining two sentences

• I know something. You said it.
• I know what you said.
• Notice that what you said replaces something
  that is the object of the verb know. An object
  is a noun or here a pronoun. So we can call the
  relative clause in this case a
• Noun Clause.
• Because it function as a noun and replaces a noun
• A noun clause can be the subject of a sentence
  compare these sentences
• His behavior annoyed me. What he
  did annoyed me.

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Other joining words can begin noun clauses.

• where
• how
• He told me when I should go.
• when
• that
• if
• He asked me he should
  go.
• weather

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3.2. Revising Sentences3.2.1. Subject-verb
Agreement

• As you know the subject of a sentence comes
  before the verb and could be
• Nouns or Pronouns.
• They could be singular (representing one person,
  thing or place) or plural (representing more than
  one).
• A singular subject goes with a singular verb and
  a plural subject goes with a plural verb. This
  rule is called
• subject-verb agreement.
• Now look at5 the two sentences that did not obey
  this rule
• I are reading a fascinating book.
• He am a charming man
• The correct forms are
• I am reading a fascinating book.
• He is a charming man

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3.2.2. Present Tense Verb3.2.2.1. Simple Present

• Read Roses answer to an interviewer
• Yes, I like this supermarket. I think its very
  nice. Yes, my husband thinks so, too. We always
  shop here. We come here every week. We live quite
  near, so it doesnt take long to get here.
• The bold verbs in this paragraph are in Simple
  Present Tense.
• Positive Form I/you/we/they shop here.
• He/she/ it shops here.
• Negative Form I/you/we/they do not(dont) shop
  here.
• He/she/it does not
  (doesnt) shop here.
• Question Form Do I/you/we/they shop here?
• Does he/she/it shop
  here?

72
Uses of Simple Present Tense

• We use simple present for
• Thoughts and feelings I think so, I like it. My
  husband thinks so.
• States, things staying the same, facts, and
  things that are true for a long time We live
  quite near.
• Repeated action We come here every week.
• In phrases like I promise, I agree.
• In negative question with why Why dont you go
  out.

73
3.2.2.2. Present Continuous

• Sarahs train is late, so she is phoning Mark
• Mark? Im at the station. Im waiting for the
  train. Oh I can hear it. Its coming now.
• The bold words are the verbs in present
  continuous tense.
• Form
• Positive Form I am looking.
• 
  You/we/they are looking.
• 
  He/she it is looking.
• Negative Form I am not looking.
• 
  You/we/they are not looking.
• 
  He/she/it is not looking.
• Question Form Am I looking?
• Are
  you/we/they looking?
• Is
  he/she/it looking?

74
Use

• We use present continuous to say that
• We are in the middle of an action. Example Im
  waiting for the train.Im at the station now.
  Im getting the lunch ready. Im in the kitchen
  now.
• We are in the middle of something but not
  actually doing it at the moment of speaking.
  Example I must get back top the office. Were
  working on a new project. Im quite busy these
  days. I am doing a course at college.
• Things are changing over a period of time.
  Example The number of cars on the roads is
  increasing. The earth is getting warmer.
• Something happen in future.

75
Exercise Complete the conversation using present
simple or present continuous.

• 1. A Is Janet in please?
• B Yes but.(I/think) she is busy at the
  moment(she/wash) her hair.
• A..(I/think) of buying a new computer
• B But computers(cost) so much money. Whats
  wrong with the one weve got?
• A..(it/get) out of date now.
• 2. A What..(you/do)?
• B .(I/weigh) this letter..(I/need)to know
  how many stamps to put on it.
• 3.A (I/think) this road is really dangerous.
  Look how fast that lorry.(go).
• B(I/agree).People shouldnt go so fast.
• 4.A ..(I/always/fall) asleep. I just cant
  keep awake.
• B What time.(you/go) to bed?
• A About ten oclock usually. But(it/
  not/make)any difference.

76
3.2.3. Past Tense Verb3.2.3.1. Simple Past

• Read the paragraph that is Joes description of
  how the accident happened
• It all happened very quickly. The car came
  straight out of the side road. And the van went
  into the back of it. The van driver didnt have a
  chance. It was the car drivers fault.
• The bold words are the verbs in simple past
  tense.
• Positive Form
• A regular past form ends in ed.
• It happened very quickly.
• I posted the letters yesterday.

77

• Some verbs have irregular past form which is a
  completely different word
• The car came out of the side road.
• Vicky rang earlier.
• The past simple is the same for all persons
  except for the verb be
• I/he/she/it was ill.
• You/we/they were ill.
• Negative Question Forms
• I/you/we/they/he/she/it did not stop. (didnt
  stop)
• Did I/you/we/they/he/she/it stop?
• I/he/she/it was not sad. (wasnt)
• You/we/they were not sad.(werent)
• Was I/he/she/it sad?
• Were you/we/they sad?

78
Use

• We use past simple for something that happened in
  the past and finished
• Example
• Emma passed her exam last year.
• We went to the theater on Friday.
• Elvis Presley died in 1977.
• I knew what the problem was.

79
3.2.3.2. Past Continuous

• Read what Jane says to Emma
• I had a wonderful dream last night. I was sitting
  in park. The sun was shining and the birds were
  singing. Children were playing and laughing. I
  was very peaceful. I didnt want to wake up.
• Form
• I/he/she/it was playing soccer.
• You/ we/they were playing soccer.
• I/he/she/it was not playing soccer.(wasnt
  playing)
• You/we/they were not playing soccer. (werent
  playing)
• Was I/he/she/it playing soccer?
• Were you/ we/ they playing soccer?

80
UseRead the conversation

• Melanie I rang at about 3 yesterday afternoon.
  Bit you werent in. I didnt know where you were.
  
• David Oh I was helping Mike. We were repairing
  his car. It took ages. We were working on it all
  afternoon.
• Melanie It was raining. I hope you werent doing
  it outside.
• David No we were in the garage. So I didnt get
  wet. But Im afraid I got oil all over my
  trousers.
• Melanie Why were you wearing your new trousers
  to repair a car?
• David I dont know I forgot I had them on.

81

• It was raining at three oclock means that at
  three oclock we were in the middle of the rain.
  The rain began before three and stopped some time
  after three.
• We were working all afternoon means that The
  action went on for the whole period. David is
  stressing the length of time that the work went
  on.

82
Now look at the following example

• You drove right past me when I was waiting for
  the bus.
• In this example you can see past continuous and
  past simple used together.
• We use this form when
• a shorter action came in the middle of a longer
  action in the past. Longer action is used in past
  continuous and shorter action is used in simple
  past.
• In this kind of sentences past continuous is used
  after
• as, while, when.
• We were driving down the hill when a strange
  object appeared in the sky.
• David was making lunch when the phone rang.

83
Choose the correct verb forms. Use Simple Past or
the Past Progressive.

• 1) We (sit) at the breakfast table when the
  doorbell (ring) .
• 2) He(meet) a lot of friendly people while
  he(work)in California.
• 3) When they(leave)the museum, the
  sun.(shine).
• 4) The students.(play)cards when the
  teacher(come)in.
• 5) While the children..(sleep), their
  parents(watch)TV.
• 6) It.(start)to rain while she..(water)the
  flowers in her garden.
• 7) When I(open)the door, it(rain).
• 8) While Henry..(have)a drink at the bar, his
  wife.(swim) in the sea.
• 9) He(hear)a loud bang while he..(talk) to
  his friend.
• 10) While he(take)a shower, his
  dogs.(eat)his steaks.

84
3.2.4. Future Tense Verbs3.2.4.1. Will Shall

• Read this report from a reporter.
• The world leaders will arrive here tomorrow.
  They will have plenty to talk about, but they
  wont be here for long-only 24 hours. Youll hear
  live reports every hour.
• Form
• I/you/we/they/he/she/it will pass the course.
• I/you/we/they/he/she/it will not (wont) pass the
  course
• Will I/you/we/they/he/she/it pass the course?

85
Use

• We use will to say what we know or think about
  the future. It has a neutral meaning. It doesnt
  express a decision or a plan.
• The world leaders will arrive here tomorrow.
• There is no decision or plan here its just
  a of piece knowledge about future.
• We also use will for instant decision, when we
  decide on something or agree to do it more or
  less at the moment of speaking.
• Im thirsty. I think Ill make some tea.
• We use will when we want to order something.
• Ill have the ham salad ,please.
• We use will for offers and invitations.
• A Ill peel the potatoes.
• B Ok Thank you.

86
Shall

• We can use shall for the future, but only in the
  first person after I or We.
• I will be/ shall be on holiday in August.
• We will know/shall know the results soon.
• I will and I shall have the same meaning here but
  shall is a little formal. Both I will and I shall
  can be shortened to Ill.
• We can also use shall in offers and suggestions .
• Shall I pack your shopping for you?
• Shall we all go out together?
• We do not use shall in American English.

87
Exercise Read the conversations. Which replies
are statements about future and which are instant
decision.

1. What would you like? Ill have an orange juice
   please...
2. Shall we go out tonight? Ill be too tired, I
   think
3. Weve lost a tennis ball. Ill help you look for
   it
4. Im worried about the exam. Oh youll be all
   right
5. I must fix this shelf some time. Well be dead
   before then
6. I havent got any transport. Oh well give you a
   lift

88
3.2.4.2. Be going to

• Look at the picture below and read the
  conversation.
• Form
• I am/ You, We, They are/He, She, It is going to
• climb the tree.

89
Use

• We use be going to to talk about something we
  have decided to do (an intention). David intends
  to climb up the ladder.
• Im going to watch the next program.
• We use be going to for a prediction based on the
  present situation. Look at the picture
• The ladder is moving so David is going to fall.
• My sister is
  going to have a baby in March.
• Its nearly nine
  now. Were going to be late.

90
Exercise Put in the verbs with be going to.

• Laura What are you doing with that camera?
• Trevor (?) I'm going to take (I / take) it to
  work. (1).. (I / lend) it to Phil.
• (2) ..............................................
  .. (he / take) a few photos with it.
• Laura Why can't he buy his own camera?
• Trevor He's got one, but it isn't working
  properly. (3).......... (it / be) a
  while
• before he can get it repaired.
• Laura Well, how long (4).........................
  ............. (he / keep) ours? When
• (5). (we / get) it back?
• Trevor (6).. (he / have) it over
  the weekend.
• (7) ..............................................
  ........ (we / get) it back on Monday.
• Laura Well, I hope (8) ....................
  ............... ( it / not / get) damaged.

91
Exercise What would you say in these situations?
Use these words be sick, crash, get wet, lose,
not stop, rain

• ? The sky is full of dark clouds.
• Its going to rain.
• 1 Now it's starting to rain. There's nowhere to
  shelter, and you haven't got an umbrella.
• 2 You feel awful. There's a terrible feeling in
  your stomach.
• 3 You are playing Scrabble. The game is nearly
  over and you are 100 points behind.
• 4 You can see a plane coming down. It's out of
  control and falling to the ground.
• 5 You are waiting for a train. There's one
  coming, but you don't know if it's the one you
  want.
• It's travelling very fast.

92
Exercise What would you say? Use will or be
going to.

• ? You want to express your intention to look
  round the museum.
• Your friend Do you have any plans for this
  afternoon?
• You Yes, I'm going to look round the museum.
• 1. You hate dogs. Dogs always attack you if they
  get the chance.
• Your friend That dog doesn't look very friendly.
• You It's coming towards us ......................
  ..............
• 2. You predict the landing of aliens on the earth
  in the next ten years.
• Your friend All this talk about aliens is
  complete nonsense, isn't it?
• You Is it? I think ..............................
  ...........
• 3. You know that your friend's sister has decided
  to get married.
• Your friend Have you heard about my sister?
• You Well, I heard that ..........................
  ..............
• 4. You suddenly decide you want to invite Ilona
  for a meal.
• Your friend Did you know Ilona will be in town
  next weekend?
• You No, I didn't. ...............................
  .....................

93
3.2.4.3. Present Tenses for FuturePresent
Continuous for Arrangements

• Tom Are you doing anything this evening?
• Nick Yes, I'm going to an ice hockey match.
• The Tigers are playing the Kings.
• I bought my ticket yesterday.
• We use present continuous for what someone has
  arranged to do in future. Here Nick has arranged
  to go to the match. (He has bought a ticket.)
  Here are some more examples.
• I'm meeting Harriet at six o'clock. David is
  coming round later on.
• We're having a party tomorrow. Sarah is going to
  Paris next week.
• The present continuous for the future and be
  going to have similar meanings.
• We're having a party next week. (We have made the
  arrangements.)

94
The present simple for a timetableRead the
conversation

• Mark What time does your train leave tomorrow?
• Sarah Seven twenty-three in the morning.
• It gets into Paris at eleven
  twenty-three.
• We can use the present simple for the future when
  we are talking about a timetable, usually a
  public one such as a train timetable.
• The train leaves at seven twenty-three tomorrow
  morning.
• The match starts at half past seven.
• Next Friday is the thirteenth.
• I've got the tour details here. We spend three
  days in Rome.

95
ExercisePut the verbs into the present
continuous or the present simple.

• Emma (?) Are you doing (you / do) anything
  tonight?
• Matthew Yes, (1).. (1 / go) to the
  station to meet my friend Richard.
• (2) (he / stay) here for the weekend,
  remember? His train
• (3)............... (get) in at eight
  fifteen.
• Emma Oh, of course. I'd forgotten about that.
• Matthew Maybe we'll see you later. What
  (4).. (you / do) tonight?
• Emma Oh, (5) (I / go) to the cinema
  with Vicky and Rachel and a couple of
• other people. The film (6) (finish)
  quite early, so
• (7).........................................(we /
  go) to a pizza place afterwards.

96
3.2.5. Perfect Verb3.2.5.1. Present Perfect

• Form
• The present perfect is the present tense of have
  a past participle.
• I/you/we/they have washed OR I/you/we/they've
  washed
• he/she/it has washed OR he/she/it's washed
• NEGATIVE
• I/you/we/they haven't washed.
• he/she/it hasn't washed has
• QUESTION
• have I/you/we/they washed?
• he/she/it washed?

97

• Regular past participles
• They end in -ed, e.g. washed, landed, finished.
  We've
• washed the dishes. Have you opened your letter?
  The aircraft has landed
• safely. How many points has Matthew scored? The
  students haven't
• finished their exams.
• Irregular forms
• Some participles are irregular.
• I've made a shopping list. We've sold our car.
  I've thought about it a lot.
• Have you written the letter? She hasn't drunk her
  coffee.
• Use
• When we use the present perfect, we see things as
  happening in the past but having a result in the
  present.
• We've washed the dishes. (They're clean now.) The
  aircraft has landed. (It's on the ground now.)
• We've eaten all the eggs. (There aren't any left.)

98
Present Perfect or Past Simple
The present perfect tells us about the past and
the present. United have won the Cup, so it's
theirs now. The past simple tells us about the
past, a time which is finished. Last year is in
the past.
Trevor We've bought a new car. Tom Oh, have
you? What sort? Laura An Adagio. We bought it
last week. We often give a piece of news in the
present perfect, e.g. We've bought a new car.
(The car is ours now.) We use the past simple,
e.g. We bought it last week, to give details or
to ask for details about things such as when and
where it happened.
99
PRESENT PERFECTWe use the present perfect for a
state or an action which hasgone on up to the
present. (David is still inhospital.)We've
lived here for ten years.
PAST SIMPLE We use the past simple for a state or
an action in the past, in a period which is
finished. (David's stay in hospital is over.) We
lived there for ten years. (We don't live there
now.)
100
Exercise Trevor and Laura are decorating their
house. Put in the verbs. Use the present perfect.

• Laura How is the painting going? (?) Have you
  finished ? (you / finish)
• Trevor No, I haven't. Painting the ceiling is
  really difficult, you know.
• (1) ................... (I / not / do) very much.
  And it looks just the same as
• before. This new paint (2) .......................
  ................................ (not / make) any
  difference.
• Laura (3) .......................................
  .............. (you / not / put) enough on.
• Trevor (4) ......................................
  ..... (1 / hurt) my back. It feels bad.
• Laura Oh, you and your back. You mean
  (5). (you / have) enough of
• decorating. Well, I'll do it. Where (6)
  ................. (you / put) the
  brush?
• Trevor I don't know. (7) ........................
  .................................... ( it /
  disappear).
• (8). (I / look) for it, but I
  can't find it.
• Laura You're hopeless, aren't you? How much
  (9) (you / do) in here?
• Nothing! (10) ....................................
  ........................ (I / paint) two doors.
• Trevor (11) (I / clean) all this
  old paint around the window.
• It looks much better now, doesn't it?
• Laura (12) (we / make) some
  progress, I suppose.
• Now, where (13) ..................................
  ...................... (that brush /go)?
• Oh, (14)..... (you / leave) it on
  the ladder, look.

101
Exercise Put in the present perfect or past
simple of the verbs in brackets.

• 1 The last time I ................................
  ............... (go) to Brighton was in August.
• 2 I'd like to meet a ghost, but I
  .................................................(
  never / see) one.
• 3 I've finished my homework. I ...................
  .................... (do) it before tea.
• 4 And the race is over! And Micky
  Simpson...........................................
  ..... (win) in a record time!
• 5 I ................... (work) for a computer
  company for a year. That was after college.
• 6 What time ......................................
  ...........(you / get) to work this morning?
• 7 Martin ............................... (be) to
  Greece five times. He loves the place.
• 8 The President .............. (come) out of the
  building and is going to make a speech.
• 9 You won't believe this, but I've got some
  tickets for the concert. Oh, well done.
  How........................ (you / get) them?
• 10 Of course I can ride a bike. But I
  ........... ....................(not / ride)
  one for years.
• 11 Marilyn Monroe.................................
  .................(be) in about thirty films.

102
3.2.5.2. Past Perfect

• Form
• The past perfect is had a past participle.
• He had enjoyed the party, OR He'd enjoyed the
  party.
• They hadn't gone to bed until late. Where had he
  put his wallet?
• Read the paragraph below.
• I felt really tired when I took the train to work
  yesterday because Sarah and 1 had been to a party
  the evening before. We hadn't gone to bed until
  after one. I hadn't been on the train long when I
  had a bit of a shock. I suddenly realized that
  I'd left my wallet at home. Then I began to
  wonder. Had I left it in the office the day
  before? I just couldn't remember.

103
Use

• In the previous paragraph, the situation is in
  the past (I took the train ... I felt
• tired ...). When we talk about things before this
  past time, we use the past perfect.
• Sarah and I had been to a party the evening
  before.
• I'd left my wallet at home.
• We are looking back from the situation of the
  train
• journey to the earlier actions - going to a party
  and
• leaving home without the wallet.

104
Exercise Add a sentence with the past perfect
using the notes.

• 1. We rushed to the station, but we were too
  late.
• . (the train /just /
  go)
• 2. I didn't have an umbrella, but that didn't
  matter.
• ..................................................
  ..................................................
  ............. (the rain / stop)
• 3. When I got to the concert hall, they wouldn't
  let me in.
• ..................................................
  ..................................................
  ..... (forget / my ticket)
• 4. Someone got the number of the car the raiders
  used.
• ..................................................
  .................................................
  (steal / it / a week before)
• 5. I was really pleased to see Rachel again
  yesterday.
• .. (not see / her / for
  ages)
• 6. Luckily the flat didn't look too bad when my
  parents called in.
• (just / clean / it)
• 7. The boss invited me to lunch yesterday, but I
  had to refuse the invitation.
• ... (already / eat / my
  sandwiches)

105
Exercise Put the verbs in the present perfect
(have done) or past perfect (had done).

• 1. The park looked awful. People
  ..............................................
  (leave) litter everywhere.
• 2. You can have that newspaper. I
  ............................................(finis
  h) with it.
• 3. There's no more cheese. We.....................
  ...........................(eat) it all, I'm
  afraid.
• 4. There was no sign of a taxi, although
  I............................................
  (order) one half an hour before.
• 5. This bill isn't right. They ...................
  .......................... (make) a mistake.
• 6. I spoke to Melanie at lunch-time. Someone
  ..........................................(tell)
  her the news earlier.
• 7. I was really tired last night. I
  ...............................................(ha
  ve) a hard day.
• 8. Don't you want to see this programme? It
  ...............................................(st
  art).
• 9. It'll soon get warm in here.
  I...............................................
  (turn) the heating on.
• 10. At last the committee were ready to announce
  their decision.
• They .................. (make) up their
  minds.

106
3.2.6. So, Neither, I think so

• So and neither
• Vicky I'm hungry.
• Rachel So am 1.1 haven't eaten anything all day.
• Daniel Neither have I . I didn't have time for
  breakfast.
• We use so after a positive statement and neither
  after a negative one. I'm hungry. So am I. (
  And I'm hungry./I'm hungry, too.)
• I haven't eaten. Neither have I. (And I
  haven't eaten./I haven't eaten either.)
• The structure is so/neither an auxiliary the
  subject.
• The auxiliary is a form of be or have or a modal
  verb, e.g. can.

107

• I think so
• Vicky It's 'Round the Corner' at half past
  seven, my favourite
• soap opera. Are we going to be back in time?
• Daniel I think so. We haven't got far to go now.
• Rachel We might miss the beginning.
• Vicky Oh, I hope not. I want to know if Bernard
  really did steal
• the money.
• Here I think so means I think we'll be back in
  time', and I hope
• not means I hope we don't miss the beginning'.
• We can use so after be afraid, believe, expect,
  guess, hope, suppose and think.
• Do you think you'll get the job? Well, I hope
  so. Are you going
• on holiday this year? Yes, I expect so. I don't
  know for sure if
• Henry is rich, but I should think so. But we
  cannot use so after know or be sure.
• There's been an accident. Yes, I know, NOT I
  know-so.
• Are you sure you're doing the right thing? Yes,
  I'm sure, NOT Im sure so.

108

• There are two negative structures.
• NEGATIVE SO
• Is it raining? I don't think so.
• Are you going to the concert? I don't expect
  so..
• POSITIVE not
• Is it raining? I hope not.
• Have we won a prize? I'm afraid not
• With expect and think, we normally use the With
  be afraid, guess and hope, we use the negative
  and so. positive and not.

109
Exercise Complete these short conversations. Put
in structures with so or not and use the words in
brackets.

• ? Laura Does the library open on Saturdays?
  (think)
• Trevor Yes, / think so. But I'm not absolutely
  certain.
• ? Harriet You can't go out for an evening meal
  wearing shorts, (guess)
• Mike ! guess not. I'd better put some trousers
  on.
• 1. Sarah Will there be a lot of people at the
  concert tonight? (expect)
• Mark ............................................
  ...... There aren't usually very many.
• 2. Daniel Are you going to apply for the job?
  (suppose)
• Vicky It's the only one available.
• 3. David Do you think it's going to rain? (hope)
• Melanie Well, ...................................
  ...... I'm just about to go out.
• 4. Nick Will the match take place in this
  weather? (think)
• Tom In fact, I'm sure it won't.
• 5. Claire Are my photos ready, please? (afraid)
• Assistant . . We're having problems
  with the machine.

110
3.2.7. Modals 3.2.7.1. Ability (can, could, be
able to)

• Can and can't
• Read the conversation.
• Vicky How many instruments can you play,
  Natasha?
• Natasha Three - the violin, the clarinet and the
  piano.
• Vicky That's terrific. You haven't got a piano
  here, though.
• Natasha No, but I can go to the music room in
  college and play the one in there.
• Vicky I'm not musical at all. I can't even sing.
• We use can to say that something is possible
  that someone has an ability (Natasha can play the
  piano) or an
• opportunity (She can go to the music room). Can
  is usually pronounced but sometimes we say . The
  negative
• is cannot or can't .

111
Can and be able to

• In the presen