Grammatical hierarchy(????)

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Introduction

• Grammatical hierarchy(????)
• Grammar is the structural system of a language.
  The grammar of the English language is organized
  into five ranksthe sentence, the clause, the
  phrase, the word, and the morpheme. Each rank is
  composed of one or more than one grammatical unit
  of the immediate lower rank. Thus the sentence
  is a grammatical unit that consists of one or
  more than one clause the clause, one or more
  than one phrase the

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• phrase, one or more than one word and the word,
  one or more than one morpheme.
• The sentence is the highest rank of grammatical
  unit while the morpheme is the minimum or the
  lowest rank. A full sentence can generally be
  segmented rank by rank down to its smallest
  constituents--- the morphemes.
• For example

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• Sentence
• Clause
• NP VP
  Prep
• Det N Auxv adv. Mv Prep.
  Det N
• These under-graduate-s are rapid-ly improv-ing
  in their writing.

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• (S NPVP NP Det N
  VP VbNP Vb
  AuxV
• Det the, a, this, that
• N table, girl, boy, letter, undergraduate
• Aux will, can, might, should, be
• V post, repair, buy, teach, sit
• MV main verb )
  (next)

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1.Morphemes(??)

• The morpheme is the minimum or smallest
  grammatical unit, also the smallest meaningful
  element of speech. Morphemes fall into two
  categories free morphemes and bound morphemes.
• 1)Free morphemes
• A free morpheme has a complete meaning and can
  stand by itself as a simple word. It can
  sometimes act as a complete utterance in
  connected speech. For example desk, chair,
  kind, cruel.

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2)Bound morphemes

• Bound morphemes are mostly affixes. They are
  also meaningful, but the meaning is not complete
  in itself unless it is attached to some other
  form. Therefore, a bound morpheme can not stand
  by itself, it only exists as an inflectional or
  derivational affix. Ex. Inflectional
  affixes----s/es, ----'s, ed/ing, er/est, ect.
• Derivational affixes prefix suffix
• Unit-war, Marx-ist , un-luck-y

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3) Allomorphs (????)

• The same morpheme in different contexts may take
  different phonological (???) or orthographical
  forms. The variants of the same morpheme are
  called "allomorphs". For example
• (orthographical variants )
• in---- inactive incoherent
• im---- immature imperfect
• il---- illegal illogical
  
• ir---- irrational irregular
• (phonological variants) s
• cats /s/ dogs /z/
  horses /iz/

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2.Words

• The word is composed of one or more than one
  morpheme. Words can be classified in two ways
• 1)Classification in terms of word-formation
• In terms of word-formation, words can be divided
  into simple words, derivatives and compounds.
  (Ex foot desk,unfairdeadline.)
• 2)Classification in terms of grammatical function
  
• In terms of grammatical function, words can be
  divided into two main groups closed-class words
  and open-class words.

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• Closed-class words refer to those sets of words
  whose items are closedor limited in number and
  are only exceptionally extended by the creation
  of additional members (Function word). For
  example Prep. Pronoun, Determiner, conj. Aux V.
• Open-class words refer to those sets of words
  whose items are indefinitely extendable. New
  items are constantly being created and old items
  are giving place to new ones(Content word). Ex.,
  noun., adj., adv., main verb.Cardinal Numeral,
  Ordinal Numeral interjection are in between.

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3.Phrases

• The phrase is composed of one or more than one
  word. Generally, the phrase is a group of words
  organized in a specific way with a key word as
  its head. The word class of the head determines
  the class of the phrase and the way in which the
  words are organized.
• 1 ) The noun phrase
• The noun phrase is a phrase with a noun as its
  head. The general pattern of a noun phrase is
• (det. ) (pre-modifier ) noun (
  post-modifier )
• all the college students
• the tall boy sitting in the corner

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• 2)The verb phrase
• The verb phrase is a phrase with a main verb as
  its head. A verb phrase can be simple or
  complex. A simple verb phrase is just a main
  verb of "modifier main verb". For example,
• She looks pale.(???????)
• They fully appreciate our problems.
• (?????????????)
• A complex verb phrase is a main verb preceded by
  an auxiliary( auxiliaries )( modifier ). For
  example

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• It is getting dark. (?????)
• She ought to have told him about it.
  (???????????)
• Joan will certainly object and so will Mary.
  (??????,????????)
• 3) The adjective phrase
• The adjective phrase is a phrase with an
  adjective as its head. The general pattern of an
  adjective phrase is ( modifier ) adj. (
  post-modifier / complementation ). For example
• The weather is fine today.
• The course is pretty difficult.
• You are not careful enough.

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• 4)The adverb phrase
• The adverb phrase is a phrase with an adverb as
  its head. The general pattern of an adverb
  phrase is ( modifier ) adverb (
  post-modifier ). For example
• He spoke loudly and clearly.
• She spoke very clearly indeed.
• 5)The prepositional phrase
• The prepositional phrase is a phrase with a
  preposition as its head. The general pattern of
  a prepositional phrase is
• (modifier ) preposition complementation, eg
• The weather has been fine except in the north.

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• 4.clause(??)
• The clause is composed of one or more than one
  phrase. A full-fledged clause is structurally a
  sequence of phrases and logically a construction
  of subjectpredicate. For example
• Sentence
• Clause
• Subject
  predicate
• Subject verb
  object
• NP VP
  NP
• The producers are able to supply a
  small part of our needs.

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1)Independent and dependent clauses(?????????)

• In terms of grammatical function,a clause can be
  independent or dependent. An independent clause
  is a clause that can stand by itself and act as a
  complete utterance, as distinguished from a
  dependent clause which forms only part of another
  clause or of a phrase. For example
• (I clause) He knows everything about it.
• (D clause) I don't think he knows everything
  about it.

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• (I clause) His new book will soon come out. It
  is on grammar.
• (D clause) His new book that will soon come
  out is on grammar.
• 2) Simple and complex clauses
• When a clause consists of only one construction
  of "subject predicate", it is a simple clause.
  An independent simple clause is at the same time
  a simple sentence. For example
• It is not true. (??????/???)
• When a clause comprises another clause or other
  clauses as its element or elements, it is a
  complex clause. An independent complex clause is
  at the same time a complex sentence. For
  example
• What you said is not true. (??????/???)
• He said that is was not true. (??????)

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• He complained that what you said was not true.
  (??????)
• 3) Main and subordinate clauses
• In a complex clause, the clause that takes
  another clause as its element is the main clause,
  while the clause that forms part of the main
  clause is a subordinate clause. For example
• He complained that what you said was not true.
• ??
• 
  ??
• 
  ??
• 
  ??

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4) Finite and non-finite clauses (??????????)

• A clause can be finite or non-finite. A finite
  clause is one with a finite verb phrase as its
  predicate verb or predicator a non-finite clause
  is a clause with a non-finite verb phrase (inf.,
  -ing, -ed )as its predicator. For example
• He complained that what you said was not true.
  (finite clause)
• I signed the paper to get the license.
  (non-finite clause)
• Can't you recall telling me that story last week?
  (non-finite clause)

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5.Sentences

• The sentence is the highest rank of grammatical
  unit. Based on one or more than one clause, the
  sentence is also the basic linguistic unit of
  connected discourse. It can stand alone and
  perform a function in social communication. Thus
  a sentence can be defined as a grammatical unit
  that can stand by itself and perform a
  communicative function.

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1 ) Full and minor sentences(??????????)

• A full sentence is a sentence with an expressed
  subject and predicate. This kind of sentence is
  mostly used in formal speech and writing. A
  minor sentence is only a sentence fragment which
  in specific contexts and situations can stand by
  itself and perform a communicative function.
  Minor sentences are extensively used in informal
  discourses.
• For example

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• A.  When did he arrive? (full sentence)
• B.   Last night. (minor sentence)
• A. Who called this morning? (full sentence)
• B. Mr. Jones. (minor sentence)
• 2) Simple(???), compound(???), and complex
  sentences(???)
• A simple sentence is a sentence that comprises
  only one independent clause. Two or more
  coordinated independent clauses make a compound
  sentence. When an independent clause comprises
  one or more dependent clauses as its element(s),
  this makes a complex sentence. For example

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• ???
• The students have made better grades in the past
  few weeks.
• The boy can stay in the room only for a few
  minutes.
• The students I teach have made better grades in
  the past few weeks.
• ???
• Miss Wang came to the party, but Mr. And Mrs.
  Sherman did not.
• Most of us are in the ball, the doctors has been
  closed, and the latecomers had to wait outside.
• ???
• The students would have made better grades if
  they had studied hard.
• I didn't understand what he meant.
  

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???????(Tense)

• In this lecture we are going to deal with the
  features of tense. We will start with uses of
  the present tense, the future tense, the
  progressive tense, the perfective tense, the
  contrast between the simple past and the present
  perfective and the sequence of tenses.

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• 1)The use of simple present
• The simple present can be formed by the following
  way

???? ?? to be ?? to have
I know it. You know it. He/she knows it. We/you/they know it. I am a student. You are a student. He/she is a student. We/you/they are students. I have a bike. You have a bike. He/she has a bike. We/you/they have a bike.
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• ??????????????,?????
• ???????-s,
• ??be? have ?????????????
• -s ????

? ? ? ? ? ?
???? ?-s reads, writes, says
?ch, sh, x, s?o???? ?-es teaches, washes, guesses, fixes, goes
?????y???? ?y?i,??-es try----tries carry ----carries
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????????-s??????????-s??????,?
? ? ? ? ? ?
?p t k f????? s helps, hates, asks, laughs
?z ? t? d???? iz faces, rises, washes, urges
?????? z plans, cries, shows
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• The simple present can be used to denote the
  following meanings with greater restrictions on
  verbs
• A) Timeless Present
• The most common use of the simple present is
  found in the expression of eternal truths and
  proverbs, as well as in scientific, mathematical,
  geographical and other statements made for all
  time. For example
• A rolling stone _____ no moss.
• A. gathering B.
  gathered
• C. gathers D.
  together

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• The earth ____ round the sun.
• A. revolved B. revolves
  
• C. is revolving D. is
  revolved
• B) Habitual present
• Nancy often _____ to her office by
  underground.
• A. went B. goes
  
• C. go D. gone
• C) Momentary and instantaneous present
• (??????????????)
• For example Whats the matter with you ?
• You look pale.

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D) Simple present referring to the future

• The simple present can also be used to denote
  future time. This use is limited to future event
  conceived of as certain, either because they
  are determined in advance by calendar or
  timetable, or because they are part of a plan or
  an arrangement thought of as unalterable.
• Here, we will just mention some sub-clauses in
  which the simple present is commonly used in the
  future sense. These sub-clauses include the
  that-clause following I hope, I bet, etc

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• the that clause following such constructions
  as
• see to it, make sure, make certain and
  the
• conditional / temporal clause introduced by if ,
• unless , in case ,once ,as long as ,the moment ,
• before , as soon as , after ,as , until , till ,
  by the
• time ,directly ,immediately eg
• I hope you have a good time. ( youll
  have a
• good time)
• I bet it rains tomorrow. ( it will rain
  tomorrow.)
• Father will see (to it )that the window is
  closed.

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• Well ring you up as soon as we get back.
• In addition, some verbs of movement from
• one place to another such as go,come, leave,
• start, arrive, begin, return, sail, etc. can be
  used
• to express the future sense, but usually used in
• simple tense to refer to a future happening
• anticipated, arranged or planed, at the
  present,eg
• He leaves for Beijing tomorrow.
• The new students _____the day after
  tomorrow.
• A. arrive B. are
  arriving
• C. have arrived D. arrived
  (end)
  

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2) The use of future tense

• In English, future time is expressed by means of
  modal auxiliaries, by semi-auxiliaries, or by the
  simple present and present progressive forms.
• A) The simple future tense
• ?????????shall?will????????,shall??????,will??????
  ???
• ????????????????????

? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ?
I (we) shall (will) go . You (he, she, they) will go. I (we) shall (will) not go. You (he, she, they) will not go. Shall I (we) go? Will you (he, she, they) go?
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• The simple future is used to denote the future
• time. For example
• You will feel better after taking this
  medicine.
• Im sure I shant lose my way in the woods.
• Besides this, some other constructions can
• also used to denote future time. For example
• be going to infinitive.
• This construction is usually used to
  express two
• meanings intention, and prediction. In its
  first use,
• the be going to form implies an intention of
  doing
• something in the near future

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• Were going to put up a building here.
• How are you going to spend your holidays?
• In its second use, be going to can
  express
• the speakers feeling of certainty. The time is
• usually not mentioned, but the action is
  expected
• to happen in the near or immediate future
• I think it is going to snow.
• Theres going to be a lot of trouble
  about this.
• Present progressive
• The present progressive can refer to a future
  
• happening anticipated at the present. Its basic
• meaning is an action that will happen in the near

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• future according to a present arrangement, plan,
  or
• program.
• As a future form, the present progressive is
• widely used with verbs such as go, come, leave,
  
• start, arrive etc.
• For example
• Theyre playing some folk music next.
• Im taking the children to the zoo (on
  Sunday).
• be to infinitive
• As a form expressing futurity, the construction
• to be inf. can denote a future happening
  based on a present plan or arrangement, eg

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• When is the factory to go into production?
• (??????????)
• The line is to be opened to traffic next
  week.
• (??????????.)
• This construction is very much used to
  convey
• orders, instructions, or prohibitions it can
  also
• connote possibility or destiny, eg
• Tell her shes not to be late.(order)
• A You are to stand here.
• BDo you understand? (instruction)
• The dictionary is not to be had
  here.(possibility)
• They are to meet next year.(destiny)
  (A)

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• Bgt The past future
• The future time discussed in the preceding
  section
• is viewed from the present. If the speaker
  refers to a
• future event from a viewpoint in the past, that
  is past
• future. Most of the future construction just
  discussed
• can be used in the past tense to refer to past
  future
• events.
• would infinitive
• He said he would come back the next day.
• was/were going to infinitive
• This construction is commonly used with
  past
• future reference clearly indicated in the
  context, eg

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• He said that he was going to live in the
  country
• when he retired.
• It usually occurs in dependent clauses, and
  if it occurs in main clauses often denotes an
  unfulfilled intention, eg
• Last Sunday we were going to go for a
  picnic
• but it rained.
• was/were to infinitive
• This construction is commonly used in formal
  style to denote a future action based on a past
  plan or arrangement. If the plan or arrangement
  is cancelled
• or unfulfilled, we will have to use
• was / were to perfective infinitive.
  Compare

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• He said that we were to leave at six.
• We were to have left at six but it rained.
• This construction can also be used in the sense
  of was destined to, ie. denoting a past
  destiny
• They said goodbye, little knowing they
  were
• never to meet again.
• past progressive and simple past(??????????)
• The past progressive can express an arrangement
  predetermined in the past, eg
• He hurried into the carriage. The train was
  leaving in two minutes.
• For past future reference, the simple past is
  commonly found in adverbial clauses of condition

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• and in those of time, eg
• He said he would tell her all about it if
  he met her.
• She told me that she would come to see
  me when she visited china again.
• was/were about to infinitive
• This semi-auxiliary construction expresses the
  immediate future in the past. In some context,
  it is often used in the sense of an unfulfilled
  intention. Compare
• I felt that something terrible was about to
  happen.(usage1)
• We were about to start when it began to
  rain.(usage2)
• The prisoner was about to escape, but the
  policemen appeared before him. (usage2)
  (end)

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3)??????????

• A)Uses of the present progressive
• Present progressive (am/is/are-ing
  participle)has the following uses
• a)To denote an action in progress at the moment
  of speaking
• To denote what is going on at the present moment
  ,we commonly use the present progressive,generally
  associated with durative dynamic verbs, eg
  
• A what are you doing?
• B Im writing a letter.

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• The difference between the simple present and the
  present progressive referring to present time is
  that the former carries a permanent meaning. And
  the latter a temporary meaning. Compare
• He lives in Changchun.(permanent residence)
• He is living in Changchun.(temporary residence)
  
• b) To denote an action in progress at a period
  of time including the present
• The present progressive can also express an
  action that is going on over a period of time
  including the present but not necessarily at the
  moment of speaking , that is, a temporary habit
  as distinguished

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• from the permanent habit denoted by the simple
  present. Compare
• He works in a chemical factory. (?????)
• He is working in a chemical factory these days.
  (?????)
• Note that the present progressive when
  accompanied by an adverbial of frequency such
  as always, continually, constantly, or forever
  often imparts an emotional colouring, often of
  annoyance or disapproval. By contrast, the
  simple present lacks the subjective, emotional
  tone of the present progressive and states a fact
  objectively. Compare

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• She complains about the house.(????)
• She is constantly complaining about the house.
  (??????she??????)
• How are you feeling today? (?How do you feel
  today??????)
• Xiao hua is doing fine work at school. (?Xiao
  hua does fine work at school ????????)
• He is always thinking of his work. (????)
• He is constantly leaving his things about.
  (????)
• New varieties are appearing all the time. (????)
• Weare now hauling in ten times more fish than
  before. (????)
• He is always boasting. (????)

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• c)To denote a future happening according to a
  definite plan or arrangement
• We have mentioned this use in the previous
  lecture
• Mr.Cameron is leaving China in a few weeks.
• Im going to Qingdao for the summer holiday.
• d)To denote other meanings
• be?????????,???????
• Youre not being modest.(?????????)
• Hes being silly.(????????)
• Shes being friendly.(???????????)
• Lili is being a good girl today.(???????)

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• ????,???????????,??????????
  (A)

? ? ? ?
??,?? be (?),lie(??),stand (??)
?? have(?),own(??)possess(??),belong to (??)
?? see,hear,seem,appear,smell,taste,sound,feel
?? know,understand,think(??)
?? like,love,hate,want,hope,wish,prefer
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• B)The use of the past progressive
• The use of the past progressive(was/were-ing
  participle) has much in common with that of the
  present progressive, only the time reference
  being pushed back to the past, often overtly
  expressed by a time when adverbial. The
  following are the uses of the past progressive.
• a)To denote an action in progress at a definite
  point or period of past time
• This is the most common use of the past
  progressive. In this use, the past time reference
  is usually indicated by a temporal adverbial or
  implied by the context. For example,

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• They were building a dam last winter.
• The students were watching TV at seven p.m.
• b)To denote a past habitual action
• The habitual action denoted by the past
  progressive is most clearly characterized by its
  temporariness, in contrast with the past habit
  denoted by the simple past, eg
• George was getting up at five every day that
  week.
• As in the case of the present progressive, the
  past progressive can also collocate with such
  adverbials of frequency as always, constantly,
  continually, forever, ect. To express emotional
  feelings,

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• especially feelings of annoyance or disapproval
  on the part of the speaker, eg
• All the time he was thinking of his
  work.(??????????)
• She was always working like that.(?????????)
• He was forever complaining about
  something.(????????)
• They were constantly making trouble.(???????)
• c)To denote futurity in the past
• In specific contexts,the past progressive can be
  used to denote a future action in the past
  according to a definite plan or arrangement. This
  use is also

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• found in some adverbial clauses of time or
  condition, eg
• They were leaving a few days later.
• He told me to wake him up if he was sleeping. (
  ????????????????)
• d) To make polite requests
• The past progressive has a similar function to
  that of the simple past and of the present
  progressive. Of the three forms, the past
  progressive is the most tentative in making
  polite requests. Compare
• I hope you can send me some books.
• I hoped you could send me some books.

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• I am hoping you can send me some books.
• I was hoping you could send me some books.
• ?????????????,???????????????????????????