Land, Race, and Power

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2. The Mexican War

• Land, Race, and Power

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Essential quote

• Expansionism partially succeeded during era of
  the Mexican War because for a relatively few
  years expansionists managed to forge a sectional
  alliance that convinced Americans that expansion
  could solve problems that, if untreated, would
  destroy the republic. The irony would be that
  expansionism itself would very nearly destroy the
  republic.
• Richard White, Its Your Misfortune and None of
  My Own A New History of the American West (1991)

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Outline

• I. Why War?
• II. Borderlands context
• III. Settlement and Revolution in Texas
• IV. Annexation Crisis
• V. War
• VI. Outcomes

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U. S. Grant on the Mexican War

• War One of the most unjust ever waged by a
  stronger against a weaker nation.

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I. Why war?

• U. S.
• Economic expansion
• Manifest Destiny
• Belief that the Anglo-Saxon peoples of America
  had the right and indeed the duty to spread the
  blessings of freedom and civilization to those
  who dwelled in darkness. (Henderson, Glorious
  Defeat, 31)
• But note latent contradictionssectional
  division, racial antagonism
• Imperial competition with British
• Oregon dispute unresolved, rumors that Mexico
  would cede California to bondholders to repay
  heavy debts

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Why war?

• Mexico
• Badly divided by race, class, region, and
  ideology (liberal vs. conservative, federalist
  vs. centralist) groping toward nationhood
  (Henderson, Glorious Defeat)
• Many leaders suspected Mexico would lose, but
  resented U. S. and wanted to regain honor lost in
  Texas Revolution

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II. Mexico's Borderlands Natives

• Native nations, particularly in New Mexico and
  Texas, extremely powerful
• Settled local groupsPueblos in NM
• Indios BarbarosComanches, Apaches, etc. war of
  a thousand deserts places most of region under
  effective native control
• Eastern Indians beyond US protectionCherokees,
  Alabamas, Kickapoos, Delawares, etc.

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Mexicans on the Borderlands

• California, Texas extremely small colonies at
  time of Mexican independence
• No latitudinal connectionsnorth-south links
  poor, so communities isolated from Mexico
• New Mexico larger, more important
• Separatist sentiments widespread
• Poor central government
• Independent or protectorate status had more to
  offer
• Centrifugal tendencies of American commercial
  expansion and settlement

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Borderland identities

• Mestizaje widespread
• Identities extremely fluidcant read border
  backwards in time Lorenzo de Zavala
  (1788-1836), born Spanish subject, becomes
  Mexican patriot, then Texas empresario and VP of
  Lone Star Republic

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Appeal of Mexican Borderlands to U. S.

• US population growth
• 1800 5 million 1850 23 million
• Farming frontiers
• Particularly attractive during depressions
• Ongoing importance of Jeffersonian myth
• Dreams of Pacific commerce
• Colonial-era forays into Pacific
• Whaling, hide-and-tallow, etc.

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III. Adams-Onis Treaty

• A. Jackson invaded poorly defended Spanish East
  Florida in 1818
• 1819 treaty signed in consequence
• Florida to U.S.
• Spain to drop claims to Pacific NW
• U. S. renounced claim to TX under Louisiana
  Purchase, forgave 5 million in unpaid claims by
  U. S. citizens

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Empresarios

• Only 2,000 Mexicans in Texas at independence
  40,000 Indians
• Spain wanted settlers in TX to act as bulwark
  against U. S.
• Moses Austin solicited permission to start
  Anglo-American colony
• Contract provisions w/ Mexico secured by Stephen
  F. Austin
• Non-Catholics had to convert
• Settlers exempt from taxes for 6 years
• Children of slaves imported to TX to be free at
  14, slave trade prohibited
• Head of family4,438 acres for farming, addl 177
  acres if herding
• Empresarios awarded 66,774 acres for every 200
  immigrants brought in
• Settlement banned w/in 52 miles of US border

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Slavery in TX

• Empresario commission with Austin provided 80
  acres per slave
• 1825 census 443 slaves out of total population
  of 1,800
• Both Mexican and Coahuilan constitutions banned
  slavery
• 1836 population 5,000 slaves among total
  non-Indian population of 38,470

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Texan economy

• Cotton production on slave
• plantations
• Some cotton went to Mexico rest to New Orleans
  on U. S. vessels
• Traded there for American wheat, as well as cloth
  and other goods manufactured in Britain
• Texans then traded British and American goods to
  Mexico, in exchange for silver

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General Manuel de Mier y Teran, 1829

• The North Americans have conquered whatever
  territory adjoins them. In less than half a
  century, they have become masters of extensive
  colonies that formerly belonged to Spain and
  France, and of even more spacious territories
  from which have disappeared the former owners,
  the Indian tribes. The territory against which
  their machinations are directed, and which has
  usually remained unsettled, begins to be visited
  by adventurers and empresarios some of these
  take up their residence in the country . . .
  and develop an interest which complicates the
  political administration of the coveted
  territory.

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Stirrings of Independence

• Fredonian Revolt, 1826-27Haden Edwards and
  bi-racial force launch rebellion, announce plans
  to form the Republic of the Red and White People
• Efforts to counterbalance Anglo-AmericansMexicani
  zing Cherokees, encouraging Mexicans to colonize,
  etc.all failed
• Centralist government of Santa Anna sought to
  check separatist tendencies of TXin 1830, ended
  tariff protection, forbade American settlement,
  etc.
• TX population increasingly divided between
  old-guard moderates led by Austin, and so-called
  war partynewcomers who found best
  opportunities gone, and hence had more to gain
• By fall, 1835, imprisonment, events in Mexico led
  Austin into war party I am tired of this
  government . . . They are always in revolution
  and I believe they always will be.

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The Native American role

• Increased raiding against northern Mexico by
  Apaches, Comanches, and others, 1830s-onward
• Weaker defenses, new outlets for contraband
  (including removed eastern Indians)
• Devastated region
• Reduced Mexican ability to resist U. S. invasion
• Contrast with American success of Indian removal
  shaped U. S. views of Mexico as a second-rate
  power

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Texas Independence

• Main issuescentral authority vs. local autonomy,
  including taxes, slavery, land, machinery of
  government
• October, 1835begins with small skirmish between
  villagers of Gonzales and San Antonio garrison
• Santa Anna marches on TX, concentrates 2,500
  troops at San Antonio, defended by 150 at Alamo
• March, 1836TX formally declares independence
  Alamo taken by Santa Anna at cost of 600 Mexican
  soldiersall defenders (189 to 257) killed
  Goliad, other main Texan fort, surrendersSanta
  Anna breaks terms and kills all 342
• April, 1836overconfident Santa Anna routed at
  San Jacinto1,300 Mexicans killed, Santa Anna
  captured

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Texas Republic

• May, 1836--Santa Anna signed two treatiesone
  public, one secretguaranteeing TX independence,
  setting Rio Grande, not Nueces, as border
• New government impoverished, wracked by internal
  conflict
• US reluctant to annexsectional poison
• TX remained bellicoseDavid G. Burnet, Texas
  proper is bounded by the Rio Grande. Texas as
  defined by the sword, may comprehend the Sierra
  Madre. Let the sword do its proper work.
• Mexican-Cherokee conspiracy discovered, brutally
  suppressed in 1839

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IV. Annexation Crisis

• Pres. John Tyler unelected, expelled from own
  party
• Hoped to ride Texas issue to popularity
• Proposes treaty of annexation, but Senate rejects
  in June, 1844
• Whigs running Henry Clay, anti-annexationist
  pro-annexation forces maneuver at Dem. convention
  to nominate Polk over Van Buren
• Dem. platform reannexation of Texas
• Polk wins slim victory, declares this a mandate
• Tyler pushes Congress to pass joint annexation
  resolutionissue of slavery supposed to be
  renegotiated, but Tyler offers annexation on last
  day and scotches debate
• J. Q. Adams the heaviest calamity that ever
  befell myself and my country

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To war

• As US extends annexation offer, Mexico finally
  offers to recognize Texas Republic
• Texans considered both possibilities
  simultaneously--July, 1845 convention picks
  annexation to US by 51 to 1
• Feb, 1846Texas President Anson Jones the
  final act in this great drama is now performed
  the Republic of Texas is no more.
• Boundary dispute becomes pretext for war

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Polks message

• The cup of forbearance had been exhausted even
  before the recent information from the frontier
  of the Del Norte. But now, after reiterated
  menaces, Mexico has passed the boundary of the
  United States, has invaded our territory and shed
  American blood on American soil. She has
  proclaimed that hostilities have commenced, and
  that the two nations are now at war.

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V. Presidential politics in war-time

• Polk idolized Jackson
• Sought to annex Texas and purchase California
• Mexican troops, angered by arrogant proposal made
  by diplomat Slidell, fire on Zachary Taylors
  forces in disputed territory
• Polk, invoking need to protect national honor,
  pushes war declaration through Congress
• Greeted w/ enthusiasmBoston Times U. S.
  victory "must necessarily be a great blessing,"
  would bring "peace into a land where the sword
  has always been the sole arbiter between
  factions, introducing the reign of law where
  license has existed for a generation."

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Opposition

• Anti-war movement developed
• Garrisons Liberator "Every lover of Freedom
  and humanity throughout the world must wish them
  the most triumphant success."
• Closely linked to slavery
• Led by Whigs
• Whig generals Taylor and Scott became heroes, but
  Polk lambasted

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Santa Fe, 1848
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American promises to northern Mexicans

• Z. Taylor "It is our wish to see you liberated
  from despots, to drive back the savage
  Cumanches, to prevent the renewal of their
  assaults, and to compel them to restore to you
  from captivity your long lost wives and
  children."
• Kearny "From the Mexican government you have
  never received protection. . . . The Apaches and
  the Navajoes come down from the mountains and
  carry off your sheep, and even your women,
  whenever they please. My government will correct
  all this."

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A daguerreotype showing Major Lucien B. Webster's
battery in the mountains north of Buena Vista,
Mexico, following an important American victory
in the Mexican War. Pbs.org
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Nebel, Battle of Contreras
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U. S. Army during War

• Not ready for warfewer than 5,500 soldiers in
  uniform, so Polk called up 50,000 volunteers
• In all, 26,922 regulars and 73,260 volunteers
  served
• Privates overwhelmingly foreign-born San
  Patricio desertion
• Tight clique of academy graduates offered
  excellent leadership
• Great leaders of Civil War learned trade while
  serving under Zachary Taylor and Winfield Scott

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Mexican Army

• Larger at eve of war than U.S. forces
• Mostly draftees, resulting in much
  insubordination and foot-dragging
• One moderate Mexican politician Strictly
  speaking, the army does not exist. What today
  bears that name is only a mass of men without
  training and without weapons.
• Poorly supplied
• Santa Annas march from San Luis Potosi to Buena
  Vista5,000 of 20,000 perish from hunger, thirst,
  exhaustion, and exposure
• Supported by soldaderas, women who accompanied
  campaigns, foraging, nursing, and otherwise
  helping army

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VI. Wars End

• US takes Mexico City
• Rebellion erupts throughout MexicoCaste War of
  Yucatan, peasant revolts in Sierra Gorda states,
  Veracruz, and Tamualipas
• Jan., 1848treaty negotiations begin

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Effects of war

• 21 months long
• 13,000 American dead (only 1,700 in battle)
• 100 million spent
• Growing Latin American fears of colossus of the
  North
• But gained
• 1.2 million acres of land, 1/3 of present
  territory
• Proving ground for generation of generals

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Outcomes Native peoples

• Spanish/Mexican policy emphasized accommodation
  and integration
• Now subject to rapid white settlement, imposition
  of U. S. control over Indian affairs and strict
  racial divides
• Genocide of California Gold Rush most extreme
  example

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Another annexation debate

• New York Globe There is a spirit abroad which
  will not long be stayeda spirit of progress,
  which will compel us, for the good of both
  nations and the world at large, TO DESTROY THE
  NATIONALITY of that besotted people. It would
  almost seem that they, like the Israelites of
  old, had brought upon themselves the vengeance of
  the Almighty and we ourselves had been raised up
  to overthrow AND UTTERLY DESTROY THEM as a
  separate and distinct nation.

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Opponents

• Southern slave-holdersnot a field for expanding
  institution
• Racists Calhoun Ours is a government of the
  white man. Equality would be a fatal error.

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Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, March, 1848

• Diplomat Nicholas Trist negotiated treaty with
  Santa Anna
• Trist had been recalled by Polk but continued
  negotiations
• Polk accepted treaty nonetheless

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Provisions

• 500,000 square miles to US
• Rio Grande to be southern border of Texas
• Alta California to include port of San Diego
• Guaranteed property rights of Mexican citizens in
  cession area
• 75,000 Mexicans within cession could decide to
  become US citizens or not
• US responsible for Indian incursions originating
  on US side of border
• 15 million payment to Mexico
• War still resented by many in Mexico
• Contingency Gold discovered by James Marshall
  in California nine days before Mexico signed
  treaty Polks announcement of discovery,
  December, 1848California would add more to the
  strength and wealth of the nation than all
  previous acquisitions

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Viewpoints

• We have not come to terms with what it meant to
  be a conquering nation. Antonia Castaneda
• One wonders a bit if the victory in a war that
  was, after all, a war of aggression to seize
  territory was not conveniently forgotten by
  Americans, because it's not one of the more
  honorable moments in American history. David
  Weber